📰 Egypt · page 3

On 13 March 2015, plans for a proposed new capital of Egypt were announced.[121]219

Climate

Main article: Climate of Egypt

Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[122]220 South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm per year and at intervals of many years.221 On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm,[123] mostly between October and March.222 Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim and Sidi Barrani, and rarely in Alexandria.223 A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.[124]224 Frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.225

Egypt has a very hot, sunny and dry climate.226 Average temperature highs are very high to extremely high throughout most of the country.227 The exception to this is the northern part of the country, which, although still hot, has its temperatures moderated by the cool Mediterranean winds consistently blowing in over the sea coast, especially at the height of summer.228 The Khamaseen is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer.229 It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over 40 °C and sometimes over 50 °C in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less.230

Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually, replenishing Egypt's soil.231 This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.232

Egypt's hot and arid climate is under increasing strain from climate change, which has brought extreme temperatures, droughts, floods, and rising sea levels.[125]233 Egypt is highly vulnerable, and these shifts threaten food security, water availability, public health, and economic stability.[126][127]234

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Egypt

Egypt signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.[128]235 It produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.[129]236

The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species).237 For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known.238 Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt.239 For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.[130]240 For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.[131]241

Government

Main article: Politics of Egypt

The House of Representatives, whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation.242 Elections were held between November 2011 and January 2012, which were later dissolved.243

After a wave of public discontent with the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi,[132] on 3 July 2013 then-General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the constitution.244 A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying the constitution which was later published for public voting and was adopted on 18 January 2014.[133]245

The next parliamentary election was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.[134]246 Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president Adly Mansour pushed the date.[135]247 The 2014 Egyptian presidential election took place on 26–28 May.248 Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for Hamdeen Sabahi.[136]249

In 2024, as part of its Freedom in the World report, Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at 6 (with 40 representing the most free and 0 the least), and civil liberties at 12 (with 60 being the highest score and 0 the lowest), which gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free".[137]250 According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Egypt is the eighth least democratic country in Africa.[138]251 The 2023 edition of The Economist Democracy Index categorises Egypt as an "authoritarian regime", with a score of 2.93.[139]252

Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.[140]253 The first popular assembly was established in 1866.254 It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit.255 In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.[140]256

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Egypt

Egypt's foreign policy is shaped by its strategic geographical position, historical legacy, and diplomatic influence in Africa, the Mediterranean, and Southwest Asia.257 As a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations, Egypt has maintained a non-aligned stance while remaining active in regional diplomacy.258 Cairo, historically a crossroads of commerce and culture, remains a centre of intellectual and political influence in the region.259

The United States has been a key partner, providing Egypt with US$1.3 billion in annual military assistance as of 2015.[141]260 In 1989, Egypt was designated a major non-NATO ally, but relations soured following the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, as the Obama administration criticised Egypt's crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood and suspended joint military exercises.[142]261 Under President Donald Trump, relations improved, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's 2017 visit to the White House marking the first by an Egyptian president in eight years.[143]262

Relations with Russia strengthened after Morsi's removal, with both nations expanding military cooperation[144] and trade relations.[145]263 Similarly, relations with China have deepened, culminating in the establishment of a "comprehensive strategic partnership" in 2014.[146]264

In 2024, Egypt and the European Union elevated their relationship to a "strategic and comprehensive partnership", emphasising political cooperation, and economic collaboration.265 Both sides are also working on deepening trade relations under the Association Agreement, supporting Egypt's economic stability, and strengthening counterterrorism efforts.[147]266

Egypt remains an influential mediator in Middle Eastern conflicts, particularly in brokering ceasefires in Gaza and facilitating the Israeli–Palestinian peace process.[148]267 It is also a Member State of the African Union and the Arab League, hosting the Arab League headquarters in Cairo.268 The Arab League temporarily moved to Tunis in 1978 in protest of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, but returned to Cairo in 1989.269 Egypt has also cultivated strong economic ties with Gulf nations such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates corpus, both of which have provided billions of dollars in financial assistance.[149]270

Military

Main article: Egyptian Armed Forces

Further information: Military industry of Egypt

The Egyptian Armed Forces constitute Egypt's military establishment, comprising the Egyptian Army, Navy, Air Force, and Air Defence Forces under the direct supervision of the Chief of Staff,[150] with their headquarters at the State Strategic Command Center, commonly known as the Octagon, in the New Administrative Capital.271 The military primarily oversees external defence but also plays a domestic role, assisting police in protecting vital infrastructure during emergencies and counterterrorism operations.[151]272 They also participate in foreign peacekeeping missions and engage in bilateral and multinational military exercises.[152]273

The military wields significant political influence, operating autonomously and remaining exempt from many civilian laws.[151]274 A significant amount of military information is not made publicly available, including budget information, the names of the general officers and the military's size (which is considered a state secret).[151]275 In addition, the military is a major driver of Egypt's economic landscape, engaging in infrastructure development, consumer goods production, and real estate holdings through the National Service Projects Organization.276

With an active personnel strength of 438,500 and 479,000 reservists,[153] it is one of the largest and best-equipped militaries in the region.[152]277 Conscription is mandatory for men aged 18–30, with service obligations ranging from 14 to 36 months, depending on educational level, followed by a nine-year reserve duty.278 Voluntary enlistment is possible from age 16 for men and 17 for women.[152]279

The military operates a diverse arsenal sourced primarily from China, France, Germany corpus, Italy, Russia, and the United States corpus.280 Recent efforts have focused on modernisation and procurement of advanced weaponry.[152]281 The domestic defence industry is also well-established, manufacturing small arms, armoured vehicles, and naval vessels, while maintaining licensed production agreements with countries such as Germany and the United States.[152]282

Egypt is one of few countries in the region to possess spy satellites, launching EgyptSat 1 in 2007,[154] followed by EgyptSat 2 in 2014.[155]283 In 2019, Egypt launched MisrSat-A, an observation satellite,[156] followed later that year by Tiba-1, a civilian and military communications satellite.[157][158]284 In 2023, Egypt launched Horus-1 and Horus-2, about a month apart.285 The country also placed MisrSat-2 into orbit later that year.286 All three of them are high-resolution observation satellites.[159][160][161]287 In 2024, two months after MisrSat-2's launch, the country successfully completed the initial operational phase of NEXSAT-1, its first experimental Earth observation satellite, achieving milestones such as developing indigenous onboard software, advanced attitude-control systems, and independently capturing and processing satellite imagery, all of which marked a major step forward in Egypt's national space capabilities.[162]288

Law

Main article: Egyptian Civil Code

The legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly the Napoleonic Code); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction only with reservations.[80]289 The highest judicial authority of Egypt is the Supreme Constitutional Court, located in the Maadi district of Cairo.290

Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation.291 Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of Justice.[163]292 The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia.293 In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.[164]294

On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution.295 It was approved by the public in a referendum held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.[165]296 It replaced the 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution.297

The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law".[166]298 The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual tried in absentia.299 Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.[167]300

On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more secular constitution.[168]301 The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.[168]302 The parliament may impeach the president.[168]303 Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute freedom of thought.[168]304 The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.[168]305 Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".[168]306

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Egypt

See also: August 2013 Rabaa massacre, Persecution of Copts

The National Council for Human Rights was established in 2003, but it has faced criticism from activists who argue it serves as a government propaganda tool to justify human rights violations and repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.[169][170][171]307

Egypt has been ranked among the worst countries for religious freedom, with widespread discrimination against minorities such as Coptic Christians, Baháʼís, and other Muslim sects.308 A 2009 report by Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranked Egypt fifth worst globally for religious freedom,[172] while the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom has placed Egypt on its watch list due to state-tolerated violations.[173]309 A 2010 Pew survey found that 84% of Egyptians supported the death penalty for apostasy, 77% backed amputations for theft, and 82% endorsed stoning for adultery.[174]310

Since the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, political repression has intensified, with mass arrests and harsh crackdowns on dissent.311 During the August 2013 sit-in dispersal, 595 protesters were killed, making 14 August 2013 the deadliest day in Egypt's modern history.[175][176]312 Since then, an estimated 60,000 political prisoners remain behind bars.[177]313

Egypt has also drawn international condemnation for mass death sentences, including a 2014 ruling sentencing 529 people to death in a single hearing.[178]314 The United Nations and human rights groups have condemned these trials as gross violations of international law.[179]315

Homosexuality remains de facto criminalised, with 95% of Egyptians opposing its acceptance, according to a 2013 Pew survey.[180]316 A poll by the Thomson Reuters Foundation, based on assessments from specialists in women's rights, ranked Cairo as the worst megacity for women, evaluating cities on sexual harassment, healthcare access, harmful cultural practices, and economic opportunities.[181]317

Freedom of the press

Reporters Without Borders ranked Egypt in their 2017 World Press Freedom Index at No. 160 out of 180 nations.318 At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, as of 2015 August.319 A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defence".[182]320

Administrative divisions

Main article: Subdivisions of Egypt

Egypt is divided into 27 governorates.321 The governorates are further divided into regions.322 The regions contain towns and villages.323 Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.[183]324

Economy

Main article: Economy of Egypt