📰 Myanmar · page 4

Climate

Main article: Climate of Myanmar

Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator.251 It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5000 mm of rain annually.252 Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2500 mm, while average annual rainfall in the dry zone in central Myanmar is less than 1000 mm.253 The northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 C. Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 C.[151] Previously and currently analysed data, as well as future projections on changes caused by climate change predict serious consequences to development for all economic, productive, social, and environmental sectors in Myanmar.[155]254 To combat the hardships ahead and do its part to help combat climate change Myanmar has displayed interest in expanding its use of renewable energy and lowering its level of carbon emissions.255 Groups involved in helping Myanmar with the transition and move forward include the UN Environment Programme, Myanmar Climate Change Alliance, and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, which directed the production of the final draft of the Myanmar national climate change policy that was presented to various sectors of the Myanmar government for review.[156]256

In April 2015, it was announced that the World Bank and Myanmar would enter a full partnership framework aimed at improving access to electricity and other basic services for about six million people, and expected to benefit three million pregnant women and children through improved health services.[157]257 Acquired funding and proper planning has allowed Myanmar to better prepare for the impacts of climate change by enacting programs which teach its people new farming methods, rebuild its infrastructure with materials resilient to natural disasters, and transition various sectors towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions.[158]258

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Myanmar

Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar, List of protected areas of Myanmar

Myanmar is a biodiverse country with more than 16,000 plant, 314 mammal, 1131 bird, 293 reptile, and 139 amphibian species, and 64 terrestrial ecosystems including tropical and subtropical vegetation, seasonally inundated wetlands, shoreline and tidal systems, and alpine ecosystems.259 Myanmar houses some of the largest intact natural ecosystems in Southeast Asia, but the remaining ecosystems are under threat from land use intensification and over-exploitation.260 According to the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems categories and criteria, more than a third of Myanmar's land area has been converted to anthropogenic ecosystems over the last 2–3 centuries, and nearly half of its ecosystems are threatened.261 Despite large gaps in information for some ecosystems, there is a large potential to develop a comprehensive protected area network that protects its terrestrial biodiversity.[159]262

Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016, among the worst in the South Asian region.263 The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (i.e., highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143), and biodiversity and habitat (142).264 Myanmar performs best (i.e., lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21) but with declining fish stocks.265 Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very well (i.e., a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.[160][161]266 Myanmar is one of the most highly vulnerable countries to climate change; this poses several social, political, economic and foreign policy challenges to the country.[162]267

Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems.268 Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia champaca.269 Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced.270 In the highlands of the north, oak, pine, and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[163]271

Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest area and wildlife habitat.[164]272 The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared.273 In much of central Myanmar (the dry zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.274

Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar.275 In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry.276 Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes.277 The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl.278 Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles.279 Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful, and are very important food sources.[165]280

Government and politics

Myanmar operates as a unitary assembly-independent republic under its 2008 constitution.281 The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (including an executive president accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.[166]282

The legislature, called the Assembly of the Union, is bicameral and made up of two houses: The 224-seat upper House of Nationalities and the 440-seat lower House of Representatives.283 The upper house consists of 168 members who are directly elected and 56 who are appointed by the Burmese Armed Forces.284 The lower house consists of 330 members who are directly elected and 110 who are appointed by the armed forces.285 The President of Myanmar acts as the head of state and the head of government and is elected by the Assembly of the Union.[166]286

Political culture

Main article: Politics of Myanmar

The major political party is the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party.287 The National League for Democracy was previously a major political party, but it was banned by the junta government in 2023.[167]288

Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was approved in a referendum in May 2008.289 The results, 92.4% of the 22 million voters with an official turnout of 99%, are considered suspect by many international observers and by the National League of Democracy with reports of widespread fraud, ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation.[168]290 The elections of 2010 resulted in a victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party.291 Various foreign observers questioned the fairness of the elections.[113][169][170]292 One criticism of the election was that only government-sanctioned political parties were allowed to contest in it and the popular National League for Democracy was declared illegal.[171]293 However, immediately following the elections, the government ended the house arrest of the democracy advocate and leader of the National League for Democracy, Aung San Suu Kyi,[172] and her ability to move freely around the country is considered an important test of the military's movement toward more openness.[171]294

The Tatmadaw again seized power in a 2021 coup d'état, which led to the rule of the National Defence and Security Council (NDSC) and its new military junta, the State Administration Council (SAC).[138]295 The coup, which was widely condemned by the international community, led to continuous ongoing widespread protests in Myanmar and has been marked by violent political repression by the military, as well as the outbreak of a civil war.[173]296 The military again arrested Aung San Suu Kyi to remove her from public life, and charged her with crimes ranging from corruption to violation of COVID-19 protocols; all of the charges against her are "politically motivated" according to independent observers.[174]297 The SAC imposed a state of emergency from 2021 to 2025, after which it transferred power back to the NDSC.298 In the V-Dem Democracy Indices, Myanmar ranks amongst the lowest as a "closed autocracy," ranking at 174th and 176th out of 179 countries in electoral democracy and liberal democracy indices respectively.[175]299 The country transitioned to a nominally civilian government in 2026 after elections described as a sham process intended to legitimise further military rule.[176][177][178][179]300

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Myanmar

Though the country's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have historically been strained, the situation has markedly improved since the reforms following the 2010 elections.[180]301 After years of diplomatic isolation and economic and military sanctions,[181] the United States relaxed curbs on foreign aid to Myanmar in November 2011[117] and announced the resumption of diplomatic relations on 13 January 2012[182] The European Union has placed sanctions on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid.[183]302

Sanctions imposed by the United States and European countries against the former military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies.[184]303 Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction.304 The country has close relations with neighbouring India and China, with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country.305 Under India's Act East policy, fields of co-operation between India and Myanmar include remote sensing,[185] oil and gas exploration,[186] information technology,[187] hydropower[188] and construction of ports and buildings.[189]306 Myanmar also has close political relations with Vietnam[190] and Japan.[191][192]307

In June 2013, Myanmar held its first ever summit, the World Economic Forum on East Asia 2013.308 A regional spinoff of the annual World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the summit was held on 5–7 June and attended by 1,200 participants, including 10 heads of state, 12 ministers and 40 senior directors from around the world.[193]309

On 19 January 2025, Reuters reported that ASEAN had told Myanmar's military government to prioritise ceasefire, "urging the junta to start dialogue and end hostilities immediately" and "to allow unhindered humanitarian access", citing Malaysia's foreign minister Mohamad Hasan.[194]310 The ASEAN chair's statement denounced "the continued acts of violence against civilians and public facilities and urged all parties involved" to "immediately halt indiscriminate violence, exercise utmost restraint, ensure the protection and safety of all civilians and civilian infrastructures, and create a conducive environment for the delivery of humanitarian assistance and inclusive national dialogue".[195]311

Military

Main article: Armed forces of Myanmar

Since the late 1950s, Myanmar's military has had major roles in Myanmar's politics.[196]312 Myanmar has received extensive military aid from China in the past.[197]313 Myanmar has been a member of ASEAN since 1997.314 Though it gave up its turn to hold the ASEAN chair and host the ASEAN Summit in 2006, it chaired the forum and hosted the summit in 2014.[198]315 In November 2008, Myanmar's political situation with neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal.[198]316 Controversy surrounding the Rohingya population also remains an issue between Bangladesh and Myanmar.[199]317