📰 Philippines

The Philippines,[16] officially the Republic of the Philippines,[17] is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia.1 Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of about 7,641 islands, with a total area of about 300,000 square kilometers.2 The islands are broadly categorized in three main geographical divisions.3 From north to south, the divisions are: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.4 With a population of over 114 million, it is the world's twelfth-most-populous country.5

The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south.6 It shares maritime borders with Taiwan corpus to the north, Japan corpus and South Korea corpus to the northeast, Palau corpus and Guam to the east and southeast, Indonesia corpus to the south, Malaysia corpus to the southwest, Vietnam corpus to the west, and China corpus to the northwest.7 It has diverse ethnicities and a rich culture.8 Manila corpus is the country's capital, and its most populated city is Quezon City.9 Both are within Metro Manila corpus.10

Negritos, the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by waves of Austronesian peoples.11 The adoption of animism, Hinduism with Buddhist influence, and Islam established island-kingdoms.12 Extensive overseas trade with neighbors such as the late Tang or Song empire brought Chinese people to the archipelago as well, who would also gradually settle in and intermix over the centuries.13 The arrival of the explorer Ferdinand Magellan marked the beginning of Spanish colonization.14 In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago las Islas Filipinas in honor of King Philip II.15 Catholicism became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade.16 Hispanic immigrants from Latin America and Iberia would also selectively colonize.17 The Philippine Revolution began in 1896, and became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War.18 Spain ceded the territory to the United States, and Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic.19 The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States controlling the territory until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II.20 After the United States retook the Philippines from the Japanese, the Philippines became independent in 1946.21 Since then, the country notably experienced a period of martial law from 1972 to 1981 under the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos and his subsequent overthrow by the People Power Revolution in 1986, returning to democracy.22

The Philippines is an emerging market and a developing and newly industrialized country, whose economy is transitioning from being agricultural to service- and manufacturing-centered.23 It has a variety of natural resources and a globally-significant level of biodiversity.24 The country is also part of multiple international organizations and forums, mainly in the Asia-Pacific region.25 Despite its fast economic growth, it continues to struggle with inequality, widespread corruption, and vulnerability to natural disasters due to its location both within the Pacific Ring of Fire and near the equator, making it prone to earthquakes, monsoon rains, and typhoons, to which the Philippines has built a resilience.26

Etymology

Main article: Names of the Philippines

During his 1542 expedition, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar "Felipinas" after the Prince of Asturias, later Philip II of Castile.27 Eventually, the name "Las Islas Filipinas" would be used for the archipelago's Spanish possessions.[18]28 Other names, such as "Islas del Poniente" (Western Islands), "Islas del Oriente" (Eastern Islands), Ferdinand Magellan's name, and "San Lázaro" (Islands of St. Lazarus), were used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region before Spanish rule was established.[19][20][21]29

During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed it the República Filipina (Philippine Republic).30 American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands (a translation of the Spanish name).[22]31 The United States corpus began changing its nomenclature from "the Philippine Islands" to "the Philippines" in the Philippine Autonomy Act and the Jones Law.32 The official title "Republic of the Philippines" was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state, and in all succeeding constitutional revisions.33

History

Main article: History of the Philippines

Prehistory (pre–900)

Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines

There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.[23]34 Bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.35 The oldest modern human remains on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.[24]36 Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.[25]37

The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ijangs)[26] and northern Luzon.38 Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC,[27][28] with lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan.[29]39 By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.[30]40 The Philippines prior to foreign colonization was believed to be egalitarian.[31]41

Early states (900–1565)

Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1565)* The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the 900 AD Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which was written in Old Malay using the early Kawi script.[32] By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of societal changes.[33] Some polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia.[34][35] Trade with China began during the late Tang dynasty,[36] and expanded during the Song dynasty.[37][36] Throughout the second millennium AD, some polities were part of the tributary system of China.[18][34] With extensive trade and diplomacy, this brought Southern Chinese merchants and migrants from Southern Fujian,[38][39][40] who would gradually settle and intermix in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread in the Philippines during the 14th century, via the Indianized Hindu Majapahit Empire.[41][42] By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.[33]

Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include Maynila,[43] Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Caboloan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i.[44]42 The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen.[34][45]43 Among the nobility were leaders known as datus, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups (barangays or dulohan).[46]44 When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance,[34][47] their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a "paramount datu",[48][30] rajah or sultan,[49] and would rule the community.[50]45 Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries[48] due to the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.[51]46 Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapu's men in the Battle of Mactan.[52][53]47

Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1934)

Main article: History of the Philippines (1565–1898), History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

Unification and colonization by the Crown of Castile began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from New Spain in 1565.[54][55][56]48 Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as slaves and forced crew,[57] whereas many Latin Americans were brought to the Philippines as soldiers and colonists.[58]49 The Philippines hosts the only Latin American established districts in Asia.[59][60]50 Spanish Manila became the capital of the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Spanish East Indies in 1571,[61][62] the Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.[63]51 The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of divide and conquer,[53] bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration.[64][65]52

Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity,[66][67] which was initially syncretist.[68]53 Christianization by the Spanish friars occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time.54 From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City corpus-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid corpus after the Mexican War of Independence.[69]55 Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade[70] by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite.[71][72]56

During its rule, Spain spent a significant sum of its treasury quelling indigenous revolts[69] and defending against external military attacks,[73][74] including Moro piracy,[75] a 17th-century war against the Dutch, 18th-century British occupation of Manila, and conflict with Muslims in the south.[76]57

Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,[73] and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated.58 This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.[48][77]59 The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown[73] averaging 250,000 pesos,[48] usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.[78]60 British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War.61 Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[56]62 The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.[79][80]63 The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years.64 Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo during the last quarter of the 19th century,[81] and the Muslim Moro in the Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.[82][83]65

Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change.[84][85]66 Social identity changed, with the term Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines.[86][87]67

Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited colonial troops and laborers alongside three activist Catholic priests were executed on questionable grounds.[88][89]68 This inspired the Propaganda Movement, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines.[90]69 Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain.[91]70 Attempts at reform met with resistance; Andrés Bonifacio founded the Katipunan secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.[69]71

The Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in 1896.[92]72 Internal disputes led to the Tejeros Convention, at which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution.[93]73 The 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the Hong Kong Junta government in exile.74 The Spanish–American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.[94]75 In December 1898, the islands were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the Spanish–American War.[95][96]76 Spain corpus had ruled the Philippines for 333 years.[97]77

The First Philippine Republic was promulgated on January 21, 1899.[98]78 Lack of recognition by the United States led to an outbreak of hostilities that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic,[99] escalated into the Philippine–American War.[100][101][102]79