📰 The Bahamas · page 2

During the American Civil War of the 1860s, the islands briefly prospered as a focus for blockade runners aiding the Confederate States.[49][50]91

Early 20th century

The early decades of the 20th century were ones of hardship for many Bahamians, characterised by a stagnant economy and widespread poverty.92 Many eked out a living via subsistence agriculture or fishing.[23]93

In August 1940 the Duke of Windsor (formerly King Edward VIII) was appointed Governor of the Bahamas.94 He arrived in the colony with his wife, Wallis, Duchess of Windsor.95 Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation".[51]96 He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony".[52]97 He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940.98 The couple visited the "Out Islands" that November, on Axel Wenner-Gren's yacht, which caused controversy;[53] the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised by United States intelligence that Wenner-Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany.[53][54]99

The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands.100 A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire.101 He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot".[55]102 Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists" and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft".[56]103 The Duke resigned from the post on 16 March 1945.[57][58]104

Post-Second World War

See also: Monarchy of the Bahamas* Modern political development began after the Second World War. The first political parties were formed in the 1950s, split broadly along ethnic lines, with the United Bahamian Party (UBP) representing the English-descended Bahamians (known informally as the "Bay Street Boys")[59] and the Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) representing the Black-Bahamian majority.[23]

A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964, with Chief Minister Sir Roland Symonette of the UBP becoming the first premier.[60][61]105 In 1967 Sir Lynden Pindling of the PLP became the first black premier of the Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to prime minister.106 In 1968 Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence.[62]107 A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968.[63]108 In 1971, the UBP merged with a disaffected faction of the PLP to form a new party, the Free National Movement (FNM), a centre-right party which aimed to counter the growing power of Pindling's PLP.[64]109

Her Majesty's Government gave the Bahamas its independence by an Order in Council dated 20 June 1973.[65]110 The Order came into force on 10 July 1973, on which date Charles, Prince of Wales, delivered the official documents to Pindling, the prime minister.[66]111 July 10 is now celebrated as Independence Day.[67]112 It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day.[68]113 Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first governor-general of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II) shortly after independence.[69]114

Post-independence

Shortly after independence, the Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973,[70] and later the United Nations on 18 September 1973.[71]115

Politically, the first two decades were dominated by Pindling's PLP, who went on to win a string of electoral victories.116 Allegations of corruption, links with drug cartels and financial malfeasance within the Bahamian government failed to dent Pindling's popularity.117 Meanwhile, the economy underwent a dramatic growth period fuelled by the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance, significantly raising the standard of living on the islands.118 The Bahamas' booming economy led to it becoming a beacon for immigrants, most notably from Haiti.[23]119

In 1992, Pindling was unseated by Hubert Ingraham of the FNM.[60]120 Ingraham went on to win the 1997 Bahamian general election, before being defeated in 2002, when the PLP returned to power under Perry Christie.[60]121 Ingraham returned to power from 2007 to 2012, followed by Christie again from 2012 to 2017.122 With economic growth faltering, Bahamians re-elected the FNM in 2017, with Hubert Minnis becoming the fourth prime minister.[23]123

In September 2019, Hurricane Dorian struck the Abaco Islands and Grand Bahama at Category 5 intensity, devastating the northwestern Bahamas.124 The storm inflicted at least US$7 billion in damages and killed more than 50 people,[72][73] with 1,300 people missing after two weeks.[74]125

The COVID-19 pandemic reached the Bahamas on 15 March 2020.[75]126

At the 2021 general election the governing Free National Movement (FNM) lost to the opposition Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) as the economy struggled to recover from its deepest crash since at least 1971.[76][77][78]127 On 17 September 2021 the chairman of the PLP, Phillip Davis, was sworn in as the new prime minister, succeeding Hubert Minnis.[79]128

Geography

Main article: Geography of the Bahamas, List of islands of the Bahamas

The Bahamas consists of a chain of islands spread out over some 500 mi in the Atlantic Ocean, located to the east of Florida in the United States, north of Cuba and Hispaniola and west of the British Overseas Territory of the Turks and Caicos Islands (with which it forms the Lucayan archipelago).129 It lies between latitudes 20° and 28°N, and longitudes 72° and 80°W and straddles the Tropic of Cancer.[10]130 There are some 700 islands and 2,400 cays in total (of which 30 are inhabited) with a total land area of 10010 km2.[10][23]131

Nassau, the capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence; the other main inhabited islands are Grand Bahama, Eleuthera, Cat Island, Rum Cay, Long Island, San Salvador Island, Ragged Island, Acklins, Crooked Island, Exuma, Berry Islands, Mayaguana, the Bimini islands, Great Abaco and Great Inagua.132 The largest island is Andros.[23]133

All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m. The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island at 64 m.[10]134

The country contains three terrestrial ecoregions: Bahamian dry forests, Bahamian pine mosaic, and Bahamian mangroves.[80]135 It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.35/10, ranking it 44th globally out of 172 countries.[81]136 In the Bahamas forest cover is around 51 per cent of the total land area, equivalent to 509,860 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990.137 In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 509,860 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 0 hectares (ha).138 Of the naturally regenerating forest 0 per cent was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0 per cent of the forest area was found within protected areas.139 For the year 2015, 80 percent of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership while 20 percent was under private ownership.[82][83]140

Climate

See also: Geography of the Bahamas § Climate

According to the Köppen climate classification, the climate of the Bahamas is mostly tropical savannah climate or Aw, with a hot and wet season and a warm and dry season.141 The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream, and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate.[84]142

The wet season of the archipelago runs from May to October.[85]143 There is only a 7 C-change difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands.144 Every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 °C for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes down from the North American mainland, however there has never been a frost or freeze recorded in the Bahamian Islands.145 There is only one report in recorded history of snow being spotted anywhere in the Bahamas.146 This occurred in Freeport on 19 January 1977, when snow mixed with rain was visible in the air for a short time.[86]147 The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually.148 Much of the natural vegetation is tropical scrub and cactus and succulents are common in landscapes.[87]149

Tropical storms and hurricanes occasionally impact the Bahamas.150 In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999.151 Hurricane Dorian of 2019 passed over the archipelago at destructive Category 5 strength with sustained winds of 185 mph and wind gusts up to 220 mph, becoming the strongest tropical cyclone on record to impact the northwestern islands of Grand Bahama and Great Abaco.[88]152

Climate change is causing temperature increases in the Bahamas.153 The average temperature has increased by approximately 0.5 °C since 1960, and the rate of warming is more rapid in warmer seasons.[89]154 Global temperature rise of 2 °C above preindustrial levels can increase the likelihood of extreme hurricane rainfall by four to five times in the Bahamas.[90][91]155 The Bahamas is expected to be highly affected by sea level rise because at least 80 per cent of the total land is below 10 meters elevation.[92]156 Climate change could also affect the seasonality of outbreaks and transmission of disease in the Bahamas.[93]157

Although the country's greenhouse gas emissions are comparatively small (2.94 million tonnes of green house gases emitted in 2023),[94] The Bahamas is reliant on imported fossil fuels for energy generation.[95]158 The government plans to increase solar energy capacity to 30 per cent of the country's total energy production by 2033.[96]159 The Bahamas has pledged to reduce its emissions by 30 per cent by 2030, if international support is received.[97]160

Geology

Main article: Bahama Banks

It is generally believed that the Bahamas were formed approximately 200 million years ago, when Pangaea started to break apart.161 In current times, it endures as an archipelago containing over 700 islands and cays, fringed around different coral reefs.162 The limestone that comprises the Banks has been accumulating since at least the Cretaceous period, and perhaps as early as the Jurassic; today the total thickness under the Great Bahama Bank is over 4.5 kilometres (2.8 miles).[98]163 As the limestone was deposited in shallow water, the only way to explain this massive column is to estimate that the entire platform has subsided under its own weight at a rate of roughly 3.6 centimetres (2 inches) per 1,000 years.[98]164

The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago, which continues into the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Mouchoir Bank, the Silver Bank, and the Navidad Bank.[99]165 The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau, formed about 150 Ma, not long after the formation of the North Atlantic.166 The 6.4 km thick limestones, which predominate in the Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous.167 These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust.168 Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight.169 Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands.170 Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream.171 This resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of the Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank, plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks.172 Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory" of each bank, or atoll, continues today at the rate of about 20 mm per kyr.173 Coral reefs form the "retaining walls" of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form.[100]174

Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary, until the start of the ice ages, and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a kilometre seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level.175 Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 C-change and the salinity by 0.5 per cent.176 Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone.177 Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays.[100]178

Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding.179 Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater, called eolianite.180 Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height.181 The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps.[100]182

Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst" topography.183 This includes potholes, blue holes such as Dean's Blue Hole, sinkholes, beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis"), limestone crust, caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves.184 Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line.185 Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition.[100]186