📰 Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C., officially the District of Columbia and commonly known as Washington, is the federal capital city of the United States corpus, and its only federal district.[10]1

The city stands on the north-east bank of the Potomac River, across from the state of Virginia and surrounded on land by Maryland to its north, east, and south.[11]2 The district was named for Columbia, the female personification of the American nation, through which human form and attributes are applied to the United States. "3 Washington" is a more recent addition to the city's common name, and is from the name of George Washington, the first U.S. president.4

The U.S. Constitution in 1789 called for the creation of a federal district under exclusive jurisdiction of the U.S. Congress, which would become a constituent part of the Union that is not part of any state or territory.5 The Residence Act, adopted on July 16, 1790, approved the creation of the capital district along the Potomac River, and is considered the city's founding date.6 In 1800, when the capital was moved from Philadelphia, the 6th Congress started meeting in the then-unfinished Capitol Building, and the second president, John Adams, moved into the newly finished White House.7 In 1801, the District of Columbia, formerly part of Maryland and Virginia and including the existing settlements of Georgetown and Alexandria, was officially made the federal district; initially, the city was a separate settlement within the larger district.8 In 1846, Congress reduced the size of the district when it returned the land that Virginia had ceded, including the city of Alexandria.9 In 1871, it made the entire district into a single municipality.10 There have been several failed efforts to reduce the district further and admit the rest as a state since the 1880s, including a statehood bill that passed the House of Representatives in 2021 but was not adopted by the U.S. Senate.11

Designed in 1791 by Pierre Charles L'Enfant, the city is split into quadrants that meet at the Capitol Building, with 131 neighborhoods overall.12 As of the 2020 census, the city's population was 689,545.[2]13 During the workweek, commuters from the city's Maryland and Virginia suburbs increase the city's daytime population to more than one million.[12]14 The Washington metropolitan area, which includes parts of Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia, is the country's seventh-largest metropolitan area, with a 2023 population of 6.3 million residents.[5]15 A locally elected mayor and 13-member council have governed the district since 1973, though Congress retains the power to overturn local laws.16 Washington, D.C., residents do not have voting representation in Congress, but elect a single non-voting congressional delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives.17 The city's voters choose three presidential electors in accordance with the Twenty-third Amendment, passed in 1961.18

Washington, D.C., anchors the southern end of the Northeast megalopolis.19 As the seat of the U.S. federal government, the city is an important world political capital.[13]20 The city hosts buildings that house federal government headquarters, including the White House, U.S. Capitol, Supreme Court Building, and multiple federal departments and agencies.21 The city is home to many national monuments and museums, located most prominently on or around the National Mall, including the Jefferson Memorial, Lincoln Memorial, and Washington Monument.22 It hosts 177 foreign embassies and the global headquarters of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, and other international organizations.23 Home to many of the nation's largest industry associations, non-profit organizations, and think tanks, the city is known as a lobbying hub, which is centered on and around K Street.[14]24 It is also among the country's top tourist destinations; in 2022, it had an estimated 20.7 million domestic[15] and 1.2 million international visitors, the seventh-most among U.S. cities.[16]25

History

Main article: History of Washington, D.C.

Pre-founding

The Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited present-day Washington, D.C. and lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first arrived and colonized the region in the early 17th century.26 The Nacotchtank, also called the Nacostines by Catholic missionaries, maintained settlements around the Anacostia River in present-day Washington, D.C. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes ultimately displaced the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland.[17]27

Founding

During the American Revolution and Revolutionary War, nine cities served as capitals to the Continental Congress and under the Articles of Confederation.28 Following independence, New York City briefly served as the first capital under the Constitution before the capital returned to Philadelphia, where it remained from 1790 to 1800.[18]29

On October 6, 1783, after the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 forced the capital to move briefly from Philadelphia to present-day Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey, Congress resolved to consider a new location for it.[19]30 The following day, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts moved "that buildings for the use of Congress be erected on the banks of the Delaware near Trenton, or of the Potomac, near Georgetown, provided a suitable district can be procured on one of the rivers as aforesaid, for a federal town".[20]31

In Federalist No. 43, published on January 23, 1788, James Madison argued that the new federal government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance and safety.[21]32 The Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 emphasized the need for the national government to not rely on any state for its own security.[22]33

Article One, Section Eight of the Constitution permits the establishment of a "District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States".[23]34 The Constitution, however, does not specify a location for the capital.35 In the Compromise of 1790, Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson agreed that the federal government would pay each state's remaining Revolutionary War debts in exchange for establishing the new national capital in the Southern United States.[22][24]36

On July 9, 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved creating a national capital on the Potomac River.37 Under the Residence Act, the exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, who signed the bill into law on July 16, 1790.38 Formed from land donated by Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 mi on each side and totaling 100 sqmi.[22][25]39

Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, founded in 1751,[26] and the port city of Alexandria, Virginia, founded in 1749.[27]40 In 1791 and 1792, a team led by Andrew Ellicott, including Ellicott's brothers Joseph and Benjamin and African American astronomer Benjamin Banneker, whose parents had been enslaved, surveyed the borders of the federal district and placed boundary stones at every mile point; many of these stones are still standing.[28][29]41 Both Maryland and Virginia were slave states, and slavery existed in the district from its founding, and much of its construction likely relied in significant part on slave labor; slave receipts have been found for the White House, Capitol Building, and establishment of Georgetown University.42 The city became an important slave market and a center of the nation's internal slave trade.[30][31]43

After its survey, the new federal city was constructed on the north bank of the Potomac River, east of Georgetown and centered on Capitol Hill.44 On September 9, 1791, three commissioners overseeing the capital's construction named the city in honor of President Washington.45 At the same time, the federal district was named Columbia,[22] which was a poetic name for the United States commonly used at the time, being the feminine form of the name "Colombus", in reference to Christopher Columbus.[32]46 Congress held its first session there on November 17, 1800.[33]47

Congress passed the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the district and placed the entire territory under the exclusive control of the federal government.48 The area within the district was organized into two counties, the County of Washington to the east and north of the Potomac River and the County of Alexandria to the west and south.[22]49 After the Act's passage, citizens in the district were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia, and their representation in Congress ended.[34]50

Burning during War of 1812

Main article: Burning of Washington

On August 24, 1814, during the War of 1812, British forces occupied Washington after defeating an American army at the Battle of Bladensburg.51 In retaliation for acts of destruction by American troops in the Canadas, the British set fire to federal buildings in the city, gutting the Capitol, Library of Congress, Treasury Building, and White House in what became known as the burning of Washington.52 The damage of the city's burning could have been more extensive, but a storm forced the British to evacuate the city after just 24 hours.[35]53 Most federal buildings were repaired quickly, but the Capitol, which was then still under construction, was not completed in its current form until 1868.[36]54

Retrocession and the Civil War

Main article: District of Columbia retrocession, Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War

In the 1830s, the district's southern territory of Alexandria declined economically, due in part to its neglect by Congress.[37]55 Alexandria was a major market in the domestic slave trade and pro-slavery residents feared that abolitionists in Congress would end slavery in the district.56 Alexandria's citizens petitioned Virginia to retake the land it had donated to form the district, a process known as retrocession.[38]57

The Virginia General Assembly voted in February 1846, to accept the return of Alexandria.58 On July 9, 1846, Congress went further, agreeing to return all territory that Virginia had ceded to the district during its formation.59 This left the district's area consisting only of the portion originally donated by Maryland.[37]60 Confirming the fears of pro-slavery Alexandrians, the Compromise of 1850 outlawed the slave trade in the district, although not slavery itself.[39]61

The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 led to the expansion of the federal government and notable growth in the city's population, including a large influx of freed slaves.[40]62 President Abraham Lincoln signed the Compensated Emancipation Act in 1862, which ended slavery in the district, freeing about 3,100 slaves in the district nine months before the Emancipation Proclamation.[41]63 In 1868, Congress granted the district's African American male residents the right to vote in municipal elections.[40]64

Growth and redevelopment

See also: City Beautiful movement

By 1870, the district's population had grown 75% in a decade to nearly 132,000 people,[42] yet the city still lacked paved roads and basic sanitation.65 Some members of Congress suggested moving the capital farther west, but President Ulysses S. Grant refused to consider the proposal.[43]66

In the Organic Act of 1871, Congress repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, abolished Washington County, and created a new territorial government for the whole District of Columbia.[44]67 These steps made "the city of Washington...legally indistinguishable from the District of Columbia."[45]68

In 1873, President Grant appointed Alexander Robey Shepherd as Governor of the District of Columbia.69 Shepherd authorized large projects that modernized the city but bankrupted its government.70 In 1874, Congress replaced the territorial government with an appointed three-member board of commissioners.[46]71

In 1888, the city's first motorized streetcars began service.72 Their introduction generated growth in areas of the district beyond the City of Washington's original boundaries, leading to an expansion of the district over the next few decades.[47]73 Georgetown's street grid and other administrative details were formally merged with those of the City of Washington in 1895.[48]74 However, the city had poor housing and strained public works; this led it to become the first city in the nation to undergo urban renewal projects as part of the City Beautiful movement in the early 20th century.[49]75

The City Beautiful movement built heavily upon the already-implemented L'Enfant Plan, with the new McMillan Plan leading urban development in the city throughout the movement.76 Much of the old Victorian Mall was replaced with modern Neoclassical and Beaux-Arts architecture; these designs are still prevalent in the city's governmental buildings today.[50][51]77