Sources
Every work cited in the manual, grouped by kind, with its licence status and where it is held. Paths under $RESEARCH_RAW are the research library (not in git); the catalogue of the grammars is grammars.tsv, that of the lexical resources resources.tsv, that of the scriptural texts texts.tsv. Each chapter's own "Sources" section gives the sections and pages used there.
How each kind is used. Public domain and CC BY: quoted briefly, paraphrased, used for examples and counts. CC BY-SA (Wikibooks, Wiktionary, the UD documentation, some papers): read and paraphrased, never copied into the repository. CC BY-NC and other non-commercial terms (UD PTNK, ETCBC, several Open Book Publishers volumes): cited and described, nothing copied, used at most as a measure. "PD-USA only" (Segal 1909, 1927): cited by section, at most a short quote. See Data and model licences.
1. Data Mova reads
| work | licence | where |
|---|---|---|
| MACULA Hebrew Linguistic Datasets (Clear Bible / Biblica; Westminster Hebrew Syntax of the J. Alan Groves Center; OSHB text and morphology) | CC BY 4.0 | github.com/Clear-Bible/macula-hebrew ; converted trees torah-wlc-macula |
| Open Scriptures Hebrew Bible (morphhb): Westminster Leningrad Codex with lemmas and morphology | CC BY 4.0 (WLC public domain) | github.com/openscriptures/morphhb ; oshb-morphhb |
| OpenScriptures HebrewLexicon (Lexical Index, BDB XML, Strong's XML) | CC BY 4.0 | oshb-hebrewlexicon |
| The Holy Scriptures according to the Masoretic Text (JPS 1917), via eBible.org | public domain | torah-jps1917 |
| Mishnah: Torat Emet 357; ed. Romm, Vilna 1913 (Hebrew); Sefaria Community Translation (CC0); Kulp, Mishnah Yomit (CC BY) | PD / CC0 / CC BY | Mishnah |
| Sefer Yetzirah: standard and Gra recensions (Warsaw 1884); Kalisch 1877; Westcott 1887/1893 | public domain; Sefaria community translation CC0 | docs/sefer-yetzirah/ (in the repository) |
| Clear Bible speaker/quotation data; Staps 2024 annotated כִּי set; ETCBC genre ranges (MIT) | CC BY 4.0 / MIT | as named in chapter 9 |
| UD Ancient Hebrew PTNK, UD 2.18 (Swanson & Tyers) | CC BY-NC 4.0 per README: a measure only | UD_Ancient_Hebrew-PTNK |
| UD Hebrew HTB | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0: a measure only | UD_Hebrew-HTB |
| UD Hebrew IAHLTwiki, IAHLTknesset, PostRab | CC BY-SA 4.0 | ud-2.18 |
| Universal Dependencies documentation for Hebrew and Ancient Hebrew | CC BY-SA 4.0: paraphrased | ud-docs-he-hbo |
| The Unicode Standard, ch. 9 (Hebrew), and the Unicode Character Database | Unicode licence | unicode.org |
2. Grammars (public domain)
- GKC — Gesenius, W.; Kautzsch, E. (ed.); Cowley, A. E. (tr.) 1910. Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, 2nd English ed. Oxford: Clarendon. Wikisource transcription gesenius-kautzsch-cowley-1910-wikisource (text public domain; wiki markup CC BY-SA, not copied); scan archive.org/details/geseniushebrewgr00geseuoft , gesenius-kautzsch-cowley-1910. German 28th ed. 1909 and Bergsträsser 1918 also held (
pd/gesenius-kautzsch-1909,pd/gesenius-bergstraesser-1918). - Davidson, A. B. 1901. Hebrew Syntax, 3rd ed. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. davidson-hebrew-syntax-1901
- Davidson, A. B. 1916. An Introductory Hebrew Grammar, 19th ed. (rev. McFadyen). davidson-introductory-hebrew-grammar-1916
- Driver, S. R. 1892. A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew, 3rd ed. Oxford. driver-tenses-1892
- Harper, W. R. 1891. Elements of Hebrew; 1908. Elements of Hebrew Syntax; 1910. Introductory Hebrew Method and Manual. harper-*
- Joüon, P. 1923. Grammaire de l'hébreu biblique. Rome. jouon-grammaire-1923
- Green, W. H. 1888. A Grammar of the Hebrew Language; Mitchell, H. G. 1902. Hebrew Lessons. pd
- Wickes, W. 1881. A Treatise on the Accentuation of the Three So-called Poetical Books; 1887. A Treatise on the Accentuation of the Twenty-one So-called Prose Books. wickes-accentuation-*
- Praetorius, F. 1901. Über die Herkunft der hebräischen Accente. praetorius-herkunft-accente-1901
- Ginsburg, C. D. 1897. Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible. ginsburg-introduction-masoretic-1897
- Further PD grammars in the library, consulted for cross-checks: Ewald 1836/1870/1891, Olshausen 1861, Stade 1879, König 1881–1895, Strack 1890, Bauer–Leander 1922, Beer 1920, Luzzatto 1853, Wright 1890, Zimmern 1898, Nöldeke 1899, Brockelmann 1908–1913 (scope private), Lidzbarski 1898, Cooke 1903. pd
3. Grammars and studies of Mishnaic and later Hebrew
- Segal, M. H. 1909. Mišnaic Hebrew and its Relation to Biblical Hebrew and to Aramaic (from JQR 20, 1908). PD-USA only: cited. segal-misnaic-hebrew-1909
- Segal, M. H. 1927. A Grammar of Mishnaic Hebrew. Oxford. PD-USA only: cited by §. segal-grammar-mishnaic-1927
- Heijmans, S. (ed.) 2020. Studies in Rabbinic Hebrew. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers. CC BY 4.0. doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0164 our card ; heijmans-studies-rabbinic-hebrew-2020 (chapters by Breuer, Henshke, Shemesh-Raiskin, Stadel, Avirbach, Wormser, Efrati, Heijmans).
- Hornkohl, A. D.; Khan, G. (eds.) 2021. New Perspectives in Biblical and Rabbinic Hebrew. OBP. CC BY 4.0. hornkohl-khan-new-perspectives-2021
- Cook, J. A. 2017. "Language contact and the genesis of Mishnaic Hebrew." CC BY-SA.
hbo-2017-cook-language-contact-genesis-mishnaic-hebrew - Shmidman, A. et al. 2022. "Introducing BEREL: BERT Embeddings for Rabbinic-Encoded Language." hbo-2022-shmidman-introducing-berel-*
- Tal, R. et al. 2025. "A New Hebrew Universal Dependency Treebank: The First Treebank of Post-Rabbinic Historical Hebrew." TLT 2025.
- Tsarfaty, R. et al. 2019. "What's wrong with Hebrew NLP? And how to make it right."
aclbulk-2019-tsarfaty-what-s-wrong-hebrew-nlp
4. Pronunciation, Masorah and reading traditions
- Khan, G. 2020. The Tiberian Pronunciation Tradition of Biblical Hebrew, vols. 1–2. Cambridge: OBP. CC BY 4.0. doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0163 our card ; khan-tiberian-pronunciation-v1-2020,
-v2-2020/ - Khan, G.; Hornkohl, A. D. (eds.) 2020. Studies in Semitic Vocalisation and Reading Traditions. OBP. CC BY 4.0. khan-hornkohl-semitic-vocalisation-2020
- Posegay, N. 2021. Points of Contact. OBP. CC BY 4.0. posegay-points-of-contact-2021
- Kantor, B. 2023. A Linguistic Classification of the Reading Traditions of Biblical Hebrew. OBP. CC BY-NC: cited only.
- Hornkohl, A. D. 2023. The Historical Depth of the Tiberian Reading Tradition; Khan, Crowther, Hornkohl (eds.) 2022, Studies in the Masoretic Tradition; Interconnected Traditions (Festschrift Khan, 2025). OBP, CC BY-NC: cited only. nc
- Suchard, B. D. 2019. "Sound changes in the (pre-)Masoretic reading tradition …" Studia Orientalia Electronica 7. Licence uncertain (footer CC BY 3.0, registry NC-SA): cited only. hbo-2019-suchard-*
- De Hoop, R.; Sanders, P. 2022. "The system of Masoretic accentuation: some introductory issues." JHS. CC BY 4.0. hbo-2022-hoop-system-masoretic-accentuation-*
- Pitcher, S. 2021. "Towards a prosodic model of Tiberian Hebrew." CC BY. hbo-2021-pitcher-*
- Naudé, J. A.; Miller-Naudé, C. L. 2017/2018. On the interface of syntax and prosody (left dislocation and the accents). hbo-2018-naude-interface-syntax-prosody-*
- Wu, L.; Lowery, K. 2006. "A Hebrew tree bank based on cantillation marks." LREC. CC BY-NC: cited only.
lingbulk-2006-wu-hebrew-tree-bank-based-cantillation
5. Lexicons and dictionaries
- BDB — Brown, F.; Driver, S. R.; Briggs, C. A. 1906. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford. Public domain. Digital text (Sefaria) BDB_Dictionary.jsonl; scan archive.org/details/hebrewenglishlex00browuoft
- Gesenius, W. 1857. Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures, tr. S. P. Tregelles. Public domain. gesenius-tregelles-1857
- Jastrow, M. 1903. A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature. Public domain. Jastrow_Dictionary.jsonl; scans archive.org/details/dictionaryoftarg01jastuoft
- Levy, J. 1876–1889. Neuhebräisches und chaldäisches Wörterbuch. Public domain. levy-neuhebr-1876-1889
- Davidson, B. 1848. The Analytical Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon; Fürst 1867; Siegfried–Stade 1893; Mandelkern 1896 (concordance); Wigram 1866 (concordance). Public domain. pd
- Klein, E. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language: only Sefaria's CC BY-NC text is held, for reference.
6. Papers and monographs on Biblical Hebrew
Held under hbo-<year>-<author>-… and hbobook-…/; licence per folder's SOURCES.md (open access unless noted; NC works cited only).
Verb and tense–aspect: Andrason 2010 (yiqtol), 2011 (wayyiqtol), 2012 (performative qatal), 2013, 2016, 2026; Baranowski 2016 (wayyiqtol and Amarna); Benton 2009 (Niphal/Hitpael aspect; NC-ND, cited); Collins 1995 (wayyiqtol pluperfect; CC BY-SA, cited); Cook 2008 (vav-prefixed forms); Doron 2020 (infinitive); Dyck 2015; Ehrensvärd 2022 (negating the infinitive); Endo 1993 (Joseph story); Hutton & Marzouk 2012 (the tG stem); Isaksson 2024 (The Verb in Classical Hebrew, OBP, NC: listed only); Joosten 2020 (participle; metadata only); Olivero 2023 (yiqtol as evidential; metadata only); Price 2014 (fem. sg. qal); Sato 2021 (statives; metadata only); Schiller 2020 (x-qatal).
Syntax, word order, information structure: Boulet 2019 (accusative); Bunis 2025 (the object marker); Floor 2004; Holmstedt 2006, 2011 (subject–verb order in Genesis), 2014; Joosten 2025 (word order); Kaajan 2019 (non-configurational); Miller-Naudé & Naudé 2016 (the adjective), 2019 (dislocations), 2026 (quotative frames); Naaijer 2017 (object), 2020 (clause structure); Bijl 2019; Snyman 2004 (negation); Van der Merwe 2018 (fronting); Westbury 2010, 2014, 2016 (left dislocation), 2018 (wayihi); Wilson 2014 (valency); Zulker 2025 (apodosis); Benigni 2022 (כִּי); Meister 1996 (interrogatives); Staps 2019, 2022 (prepositions, לִפְנֵי); Hardy 2022 (The Development of Biblical Hebrew Prepositions); Kroeze 1994 (gender); Stein 2008 (the noun).
Discourse and pragmatics: Li 2006 (va-yehi); Longacre 2006; Lenzi 2015 (sequences of forms); Yoo 2008 (paragraphs); Runge 2007 (participant reference); Levinsohn 2018; Winther-Nielsen 2016 (participant tracking); Savran 2009; Warren-Rothlin 2007 (politeness); Hare 2018 (gendered speech); Kim 2023 (forms of address; cited, not read); Patty 2026 (narrative conversation); Andrason, Hornea & Joubert 2020 (interjections); Dzikiewicz 2017 (Gen 1:1).
Lexicon: Legnaioli 2016 (time); Vergari 2021 (polysemy); Notarius 2025 (loanwords in archaic BH); Azar, Pahmer & Waxman 2020 (a thesaurus of Biblical Hebrew); Benbaji, Doron & Hénot-Mortier 2022 (embeddings and denominal roots); Hacohen 2021 (DOM in Modern Hebrew).
History and dating: Rezetko & Young 2014 (Historical Linguistics and Biblical Hebrew, open access); Rezetko 2016, 2019; Young 2008; Naudé 2016; Hornkohl 2020 (DSS and Tiberian); Hornkohl 2024 (Diachronic Diversity in CBH, NC: cited); Winther-Nielsen 2019; Hutton 2015; Stefaniak 2026 (Arad inscriptions).
Resources and computation: Swanson & Tyers 2022 (UD PTNK, LREC); Roorda 2014, 2015, 2019 (LAF-Fabric, Text-Fabric); Winther-Nielsen 2016, 2017 (tools for learners); Wu & Lowery 2006.
7. Open web
- Wikibooks, Biblical Hebrew (CC BY-SA; read, not copied): wikibooks-en-hebrew
- unfoldingWord Hebrew Grammar (CC BY-SA; read, not copied): unfoldingword-uhg
- Wikipedia, "Sefer Torah", "Paleo-Hebrew alphabet" (CC BY-SA; facts only).
8. Mova's own
macula and src/main.rs; tools/cycle/src/db.rs; yetzirah; Sefer Yetzirah; Watching the SLM think: the diagnosis of its answers; Data and model licences; hbo-prag.tsv, dict/torah-en.tsv(.examples), parsedb-hbo/; commits 57f01449a, 2dd207e22, 585ceae61, ed0701a37, 3dfca471a. Counts in this manual: 2026-10-17.
Wanted
Key works not held, or held under terms that forbid use here. Most are in copyright; the list says what to look for.
Reference grammars and syntax: Waltke & O'Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (1990); Joüon & Muraoka, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew (2nd ed. 2006); Van der Merwe, Naudé & Kroeze, A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar (2nd ed. 2017); Andersen, The Hebrew Verbless Clause in the Pentateuch (1970); Blau, Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew (2010); Fox, Semitic Noun Patterns (2003); Emerton 1977 on hištaḥawāh.
Verb and discourse: Niccacci, The Syntax of the Verb in Classical Hebrew Prose (1990); Longacre, Joseph (1989/2003); Miller, The Representation of Speech in Biblical Hebrew Narrative (1996); Talstra, "Text Grammar and Hebrew Bible" I–II; Cook, Time and the Biblical Hebrew Verb (2012); Runge & Westbury, Lexham Discourse Hebrew Bible (data).
Accents and Masorah: Price, The Syntax of Masoretic Accents in the Hebrew Bible (1990); Jacobson, Chanting the Hebrew Bible (2002/2017); Dresher 1994 and DeCaen & Dresher 2020 on the prosodic basis of the accents; Breuer's accent manuals; Yeivin, Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah (1980); Revell and Dotan on pointing and pausal forms; facsimiles of the Aleppo and Leningrad codices; a machine-readable ketiv list of the WLC.
Phonology and history: Blau, On Polyphony in Biblical Hebrew (1982); Steiner on Septuagint transcriptions; Ben-Ḥayyim, A Grammar of Samaritan Hebrew (2000); Kutscher, A History of the Hebrew Language (1982); Sáenz-Badillos, A History of the Hebrew Language (1993); Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1986); Hurvitz 1982 and A Concise Lexicon of Late Biblical Hebrew (2014); Young, Rezetko & Ehrensvärd, Linguistic Dating of Biblical Texts (2008).
Lexicons: Koehler & Baumgartner, HALOT; Clines, The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew; de Blois, Semantic Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew (its domains are in MACULA but their licence excludes us); Lambdin 1953 on Egyptian loanwords; Muchiki 1999; Mankowski 2000 on Akkadian loanwords.
Mishnaic Hebrew: Pérez Fernández, An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew (1997); Bar-Asher, Studies in Mishnaic Hebrew (2009); Haneman, A Morphology of Mishnaic Hebrew (1980); an open, morphologically tagged Mishnah (Kaufmann); an open edition of the Bar Kokhba letters; a UD treebank of Mishnaic Hebrew.
Data: an open-licence Ancient Hebrew UD treebank (PTNK and ETCBC are NC); an open noun-and-suffix paradigm resource.
This page in Markdown → https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/hbo/sources/