📰 Spain · page 3

Restoration of democracy

Main article: Spanish transition to democracy, Spanish society after the democratic transition

In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside Spain and in exile met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy.[77][78][79]176 With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the Francoist law.177 With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities.178 The Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like the Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria or 1977 Massacre of Atocha.179

In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA until ETA's dissolution in May 2018.[80]180 ETA was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule, but continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.181

On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military-backed government.182 King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.[81]183

In the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society.184 New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña.185 In May 1982, Spain joined NATO, followed by a 1986 referendum after a strong social opposition.186 In 1986, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years.187 In 1986, Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union.188 In 1996, the PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) after scandals around participation of the government of Felipe González in the Dirty war against ETA.189

Economic prosperity and crash

On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s.190 However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.[82]191

In 2002, the Prestige oil spill occurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline.192 In 2003 José María Aznar supported US president George W. Bush in the Iraq War, and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society.193 In March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid.[83]194 Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group ETA, evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged.195 Because of the proximity of the 2004 Spanish general election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties, the PP (People's Party) and PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' party) exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident.[84]196 The PSOE won the election, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.[85]197

In the early 2000s, the proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the 2008 financial crisis.[86]198 In 2005, the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage, becoming the third country worldwide to do so.[87]199 Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence.200 Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010.[88]201

The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis.202 High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption within the Royal family and the People's Party served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests.[89]203 The Catalan independence movement also gained traction.204 In 2011, Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won the election with 44.6% of votes.[90]205 As prime minister, he implemented austerity measures for the EU bailout, the EU Stability and Growth Pact.[91]206 On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.[92]207

Constitutional issues

In October 2017 a Catalan independence referendum was held and the Parliament of Catalonia voted to unilaterally declare independence from Spain to form a Catalan Republic[93][94] on the day the Spanish Senate was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister.[95][96]208 On the same day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Mariano Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election.[97]209 No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.[98]210

In June 2018, the Congress of Deputies passed a motion of no-confidence against Rajoy and replaced him with the PSOE leader Pedro Sánchez.[99]211 In 2019, the first ever coalition government in Spain was formed, between PSOE and Unidas Podemos (now Sumar).212 Between 2018 and 2024, Spain faced an institutional crisis surrounding the mandate of the General Council of the Judiciary (CGPJ), until the mandate got renovated.[100]213 In January 2020, the COVID-19 virus was confirmed to have spread to Spain, causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year.[101]214 The European Commission economic recovery package Next Generation EU was created to support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, and will be in use in the period 2021–2026.215 In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to make active euthanasia legal.[102]216

Following the general election on 23 July 2023, Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez again formed a coalition government, this time with Sumar, the successor of Unidas Podemos.[103]217 In 2024, the first non-independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, Salvador Illa, was elected, normalising the constitutional and institutional relations between the national and the regional administrations.218 In 2024,[104] only 17.3% of Catalans feel themselves as "only Catalan".219 46% of Catalans would answer "as Spanish as Catalan", while 21.8% "more Catalan than Spanish".[104]220 In 2024 polling, over 50% of Catalans would vote against independence, while less than 40% would vote in favour.[105]221

Geography

Main article: Geography of Spain

At 505992 km2, Spain is the world's fiftieth largest country and Europe's fourth largest country.222 At 3715 m, Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base.223 Spain is a transcontinental country, having territory in both Europe and Africa.224

Spain lies between latitudes 27° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E.225

On the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal corpus; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar and Morocco corpus, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera).226 On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France corpus and Andorra corpus.227 Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.228

Extending to 1214 km, the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.[106]229

Islands

Main article: List of islands of Spain

Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as plazas de soberanía ("places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas.230 The peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía.231 The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia.232 The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.233

There are eleven major islands in Spain, all of which have their own governing bodies (Cabildos insulares in the Canaries, Consells insulars in Baleares).234 These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form the Pityusic islands, part of the Balearic archipelago).235 These islands include Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro in the Canarian archipelago and Mallorca, Ibiza, Menorca and Formentera in the Balearic archipelago.236

Mountains and rivers

Mainland Spain is a rather mountainous landmass, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains.237 After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3478 m Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula.238 The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3718 m active volcano in the Canary Islands.239 The Meseta Central (often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central.240

There are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño).241 Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.242

Climate

Main article: Climate of Spain

Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions:[107]243

• The Mediterranean climate is characterised by warm or hot and dry summers and is the predominant climate in the country.244 It has two varieties: Csa and Csb, according to the Köppen climate classification.245
• The Csa zone is associated with areas with hot summers.246 It is predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout Andalusia, Extremadura and much of the centre of the country.247 Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such as some areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Extremadura, Madrid and some parts of Andalusia, have cool winters with some continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the sea have mild winters.248
• The Csb zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. western Castile–León, northeastern Castilla-La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas (notably Galicia).249
• The semi-arid climate (BSk, BSh) is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain.250 It covers most of the Region of Murcia, southern and central-eastern Valencia, eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and some areas of Extremadura.251 Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the Ebro valley, which crosses southern Navarre, central Aragon and western Catalonia.252 It is also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small area in central Castilla-León.253 Precipitation is limited with the dry season extending beyond the summer and average temperature depending on altitude and latitude.254
• The oceanic climate (Cfb) is located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region (Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias, and partly Galicia and Castile–León).255 It is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the Iberian System and in the Pyrenean valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (Cfa) also occurs.256 Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.257

Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in areas with very high altitude, the humid subtropical climate in areas of northeastern Spain and the continental climates (Dfc, Dfb / Dsc, Dsb) in the Pyrenees as well as parts of the Cantabrian Range, the Central System, Sierra Nevada and the Iberian System, and a typical desert climate (BWk, BWh) in the zone of Almería, Murcia and eastern Canary Islands.258 Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above 18.0 C during their coolest month, thus having influences of tropical climate, although they cannot properly be classified as tropical climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus belonging to an arid or semi-arid climate.[108]259

Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by climate change in Europe.260 In Spain, which already has a hot and dry climate, extreme events such as heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent.[109][110]261 The country is also experiencing more episodes of drought and increased severity of these episodes.[111]262 Water resources will be severely affected in various climate change scenarios.[112]263 To mitigate the effects of climate change, Spain is promoting an energy transition to renewable energies, such as solar and wind energy.[113]264

Fauna and flora

Main article: Wildlife of Spain

The fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.265

The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate and latitude.266 Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, and biotic factors.267 The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries.[114]268

Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all European countries.[115]269