The verb in Biblical Aramaic

The Aramaic verb is built like the Hebrew one: a consonantal root (mostly three letters), a stem (binyan) that adds meaning (intensive, causative, passive, reflexive), and conjugations: the perfect (suffixes), the imperfect (prefixes), the imperative, the infinitive and two participles. This file gives the paradigms of Biblical Aramaic, the weak roots, and how the forms are used. The later varieties keep the system but shift its uses and some endings: see The verb in Targumic Aramaic, The verb in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, The verb in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, The grammar of Zoharic Aramaic.

References: Rosenthal 1961 (the verb, with full paradigms at the end of the book); Bauer and Leander 1927 §§ 26–50 (the verb); Kautzsch 1884; Marti 1896, Kurzgefasste Grammatik der biblisch-aramäischen Sprache; Johns 1972; Greenspahn 2003; Li 2009, The Verbal System of the Aramaic of Daniel: Explanation and Pedagogy; Cook 2019, Aramaic Ezra and Daniel: A Handbook on the Aramaic Text (Baylor). Forms are from WLC (public domain); counts from MACULA (CC BY 4.0), 2026-10-17.

Checked 2026-10-18 against the public-domain grammars on disk, mainly Strack 1901 (§§ 12–23, whose paradigm marks unattested forms) and the WLC text in MACULA. In the tables below, * marks a regular form that is not attested in Biblical Aramaic; each checked table ends with a line naming the sections.

1. The stems

Total verb forms: 1 068. Peal is 59% of all forms; the causative (haphel + aphel) is 16%.

Two things mark Biblical Aramaic against all later Jewish Aramaic:

1. haphel with ה is the normal causative, aphel with א is the minority (143 : 24 in MACULA). In Onkelos, JPA and JBA the causative is aphel (אַ־) almost everywhere (The Aramaic family and the Jewish varieties §5).
2. Internal passives (peil, hophal) are alive. Later Aramaic replaces them with the t-stems (ithpeel, ittaphal); only the peil participle (כְּתִיב "written", יְדִיעַ "known") survives everywhere.

2. Peal of the strong verb

Model root כ־ת־ב "write". Where Biblical Aramaic attests a form of another root, it is cited.

2.1 Perfect (suffix conjugation)

Checked 2026-10-18: Strack 1901 §14.1 (paradigm, p. 28) and §15a–b (p. 29): all eight forms agree; Strack notes נֶפְקַת with segol as a single case (Dan 2:13) and the 3 f. pl. only in the Qere.

Verbs with i in the stem (stative verbs) have כְּתִב-type perfects: יְתִב "he sat" (Dan 7:9), שְׁלֵט "he ruled", דְּחִל "he feared".

2.2 Imperfect (prefix conjugation)

Checked 2026-10-18: Strack 1901 §14.3, p. 28, §15d–e, p. 30: all eight forms agree (the 1 sg. of the model root is marked as not attested; אִנְדַּע is).

The theme vowel varies by root: u (יִסְגֻּד), a (יִשְׁלַח, with gutturals), i/e (יִפֵּל "he will fall", Dan 3:6).

Long and short forms. The plural (and 2 f. sg.) forms have a long form with final ־ן (-ūn, -īn) and a short form without it. The short form is a jussive (wish, negative command) and is used before object suffixes: יֵאבַדוּ "let them perish" (Jer 10:11; BDB-Aram s.v. אבד notes "not ־וּן"), אַל־יְבַהֲלוּךְ "let (your thoughts) not alarm you" (Dan 5:10). The distinction is a remnant of the Old Aramaic and Proto-Semitic jussive; it disappears in the later dialects (Rosenthal 1961; Li 2009, ch. 4).

2.3 Imperative, infinitive, participles

Checked 2026-10-18: Strack 1901 §14.2, 4–5, p. 29 (imperative, infinitive, active and passive participle as in the table; no feminine plural imperative is given, so it is marked *). Second pass 2026-10-18: Bauer and Leander 1927 §37c, p. 117, state that no stem attests a feminine plural imperative and leave it out of their paradigm; their list of every attested verb form (§50j–l, p. 172) has none, and Marti 1896 (Tab. II, p. 4*) gives only m. sg., f. sg. and m. pl. The shape *כְּתֻבָה is therefore a reconstruction that no grammar on disk prints (still unverified as a shape).

The peal infinitive has a prefix מ־ (miqṭal), unlike Hebrew (qəṭōl). It nearly always comes after ל־: לְמִבְנֵא, לְמֶעְבַּד. The infinitive of the derived stems has the ending ־ָה / ־וּת (§3).

3. The derived stems

3.1 Synopsis of the strong verb

Checked 2026-10-18: Strack 1901 §14 (paradigm, pp. 28–29) for peal, hithpeel, pael, hithpaal and haphel: the forms agree. Strack gives no imperative for the t-stems. Corrected: the earlier aphel imperfect "יְכְתֵּב / יַכְתֵּב" was not a possible form; Strack gives יַכְתֵּב as the syncopated haphel imperfect (beside יְהַכְתֵּב), and the aphel row is a regular reconstruction: Strack §12g, p. 26, counts only three haphel-type forms with א in a strong pattern (אַחֵת Ezra 5:15, אֲקִימֵהּ Dan 3:1, אַתַּרוּ Dan 4:11); MACULA's larger aphel count (24) includes weak roots and is kept as measured. Hophal: only perfects (Strack §12d: הָנְחַת, הוּבַד, הֻעַל, הֳקִימַת, הוּסְפַת, הָתְקְנַת); Strack writes the pattern הֻקְטַל. Shaphel: three verbs only (Strack §12f: שֵׁיצִיא, שֵׁיזִב, שַׁכְלֵל, with infinitive לְשַׁכְלָלָה).

Second pass 2026-10-18: Bauer and Leander 1927 §37 (paradigm, pp. 118–121, which stars every form not attested in any verb class) and §50 (every verb form of the Bible, pp. 170–177). The imperatives of hithpeel and hithpaal are starred there too (p. 118–119; none in §50j–l). Corrected: the aphel imperfect was printed as *יְכַתֵּב, which is the pael shape; Bauer and Leander give the aphel imperfect as יַכְתִּב, attested in the pattern by יַחְסְנוּן "they will possess" (Dan 7:18; §50h, p. 172) beside the hollow יְקִים; the aphel imperative אַכְתֵּב is attested in the pattern by אֲחֵת (Ezra 5:15) and אַתַּרוּ (Dan 4:11; §50j, l, p. 172), and the aphel participle by מַשְׁפִּיל (Dan 5:19, WLC; Bauer and Leander write מַשְׁפִּל), מַצְלַח (Ezra 5:8) and the plurals מַהְלְכִין, מַצְלְחִין (§50v, x, pp. 176–177), so these three are no longer starred. The aphel perfect stays starred: Bauer and Leander give אַכְתִּב as attested only with a suffix (אֲקִימֵהּ, Dan 3:1; p. 121 n. 4) and star the form with ṣere; the infinitive is starred by them as well (only the construct אַחֲוָיַת, Dan 5:12, is attested; p. 121 n. 11). Disagreement: Strack §12g counts the forms with א and a strong pattern as haphel-type (syncopated haphel), Bauer and Leander as aphel. Shaphel: the imperfect and participle of the model are attested only from שׁיזב (יְשֵׁיזִב §50d, מְשֵׁיזִב §50v); Bauer and Leander also count מְסוֹבְלִין (Ezra 6:3) as a shaphel participle (§50x, p. 177); no shaphel imperative is attested (starred on p. 119).

The haphel keeps the ה after the prefix in the imperfect and participle (יְהַכְתֵּב, מְהַכְתֵּב), unlike Hebrew, where it drops (יַכְתִּיב, מַכְתִּיב).

3.2 Attested forms by stem

Pael:

Haphel / aphel:

Shaphel (loans from Akkadian, BDB-Aram s.vv.; Kaufman 1974, The Akkadian Influences on Aramaic): שֵׁיזִב "deliver" (Akkadian šūzubu): יְשֵׁיזִב "he will deliver" (Dan 3:17), יְשֵׁיזְבִנָּךְ "he will deliver you" (Dan 6:17), לְשֵׁיזָבוּתַנָא "to deliver us" (Dan 3:17); שַׁכְלֵל "complete" (Akkadian šuklulu): שַׁכְלִילוּ "they completed" (Ezra 4:12 Qere), שַׁכְלְלֵהּ (Ezra 5:11); hishtaphel יִשְׁתַּכְלְלוּן "they will be completed" (Ezra 4:13); שֵׁיצִיא "finish" (Ezra 6:15).

3.3 Passives and reflexives

Peil — the internal passive of peal, frequent in Daniel's narrative and in the handwriting on the wall:

Hophal: הֳקִימַת "it was made to stand" (Dan 7:4), הֻעַל "he was brought in" (Dan 5:13), הָתְקְנַת "I was re-established" (Dan 4:33), הוּסְפַת "(greatness) was added" (Dan 4:33).

Hithpeel / hithpaal:

Note the metathesis and assimilation of the t (הִשְׁתְּכַח from שׁכח, הִזְדְּמִן from זמן, יִתְּשָׂמוּן from שׂום with t doubled) — Script and phonology §5.

4. Weak roots

Weak roots are those with a guttural, a glide (w, y), n, ʾ or a doubled consonant in a sensitive position. Biblical Aramaic has the same classes as Hebrew, with Aramaic outcomes.

Checked 2026-10-18: Strack 1901 §§ 17–23, pp. 31–35 (every weak class with its attested forms) and the WLC in MACULA. Corrected: the infinitive of אתה is מֵתֵא without א (Strack §17a; Dan 3:2); "I built" is attested only with the suffix (בֱנַיְתַהּ; Strack §23c names it as the one exception to the vowel rule); the peal of דקק is attested only in the 3 m. pl. דָּקוּ (Strack §22c), and תַּדִּק is haphel. Forms marked * are regular but not attested. Where Strack and the Masoretic pointing differ: מַהְלְכִין (WLC, haphel-type) against Strack's emendation מְהַלְּכִין (§20a). The I-n forms without assimilation (יִנְתְּנוּן, תִּנְתֵּן, לְמִנְתַּן) are in Strack §18a.

Second pass 2026-10-18: Bauer and Leander 1927 §50, pp. 170–177 (all attested verb forms, by person and stem) and the WLC in MACULA (verb forms by lemma, counted 2026-10-18). Confirmed as not attested: *יֵאתֵה, *מְקָם (the only hollow peal infinitive is מְהָךְ, §50u), *מֶהֱוֵא, *יֵעֹל. Corrected: several unstarred forms are not attested and are now starred: the infinitives מִפַּל, מִפַּק, מִנְדַּע and מֵעַל (§50u lists for the geminates only מֵחַן; MACULA has no peal infinitive of עלל), the imperfects יִפֻּק, יִנְדַּע (3 m. sg.), יֶחֱזֵה, יִבְנֵא, and the singular participles נָפֵל, הָוֵא, בָּנֵה; the attested neighbours are added. The I-y imperfects with -nd- and the hollow, III-y and geminate rows otherwise agree with §50b–i, m–s, u–x. Disagreement on the stem of two forms: Bauer and Leander list תַּדִּק (Dan 2:40, 44), תַדְּקִנַּהּ (Dan 7:23) and the participle מַדֱּקָה (Dan 7:7, 19) under aphel (§50e, w), where this table and Strack call them haphel; they list מַהְלְכִין (Dan 3:25) as an aphel participle (§50x), as the WLC points it, against Strack's emendation.

Two suppletive verbs are worth remembering because they continue into Onkelos: "give" (יהב / נתן) and "go" (אזל / הלך).

4.1 Paradigm of הוה "be"

(Attested: הֲוָה Dan 7:13; הֲוָת Ezra 4:24; הֲוַיְתָ Dan 2:31; הֲוֵית Dan 7:9; הֲווֹ Ezra 4:20; לֶהֱוֵא Dan 2:20; Ezra 4:12; תֶּהֱוֵא Ezra 6:8 and תֶּהֱוֵה Dan 2:41 (3 f. sg.); לֶהֱוֺן Dan 6:27. Checked 2026-10-18: Strack 1901 §23i–k, p. 35, which also gives the 3 f. pl. לֶהֶוְיָן and explains the ל־ prefix as a scribal device to avoid writing יהוה. Forms marked * are regular reconstructions. Second pass 2026-10-18: Bauer and Leander 1927 §50b–c, f, q, pp. 171–174, list no 2 m. sg. or 1 sg. imperfect, no 1 pl. imperfect and no 1 pl. perfect of הוה (the III-y 1 pl. perfects are רְמֵינָא, בְּעֵינָא, p. 174, which fit *הֲוֵינָא); they add the 3 m. sg. variant לֶהֱוֵה and the imperative הֱווֹ, הֲווֹ (Ezra 4:22; 6:6, §50l).)

5. Object suffixes

See Pronouns in Biblical Aramaic §4. Imperfects take suffixes with an energic n: תְהוֹדְעֻנַּנִי, יְשֵׁיזְבִנָּךְ, יְשֵׁיזְבִנְכוֹן.

6. How the forms are used

The use of the forms in Biblical Aramaic is between Imperial Aramaic and the later dialects: the perfect is the past, the imperfect the future and the modal, and the participle is spreading from the present into the narrative (Li 2009; Rosenthal 1961; Cook 2019).

MACULA's tagging of the 1 068 verb forms (2026-10-17): perfect 394 (37%), active participle 263 (25%), imperfect 250 (23%), infinitive 82, passive participle 44, imperative 35. A quarter of all verbs are active participles: the participle is already a main tense, as it is in all the later dialects (The verb in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic §6).

6.1 The narrative formula עָנֵה … וְאָמַר

The tales of Daniel introduce speech with two participles, "answering and saying", where Hebrew has וַיַּעַן … וַיֹּאמֶר:

Aramaic:   עָנֵה מַלְכָּא וְאָמַר לְכַשְׂדָּאֵי מִלְּתָא מִנִּי אַזְדָּא
Translit.: ʿānē malkā wə-ʾāmar lə-ḵaśdāʾē millətā minnī ʾazdā
Gloss:     answer.PEAL.PTCP.ACT.MS king.DET and-say.PEAL.PTCP.ACT.MS to-Chaldean.PL word.F.DET from-1SG certain
English:   The king answered and said to the Chaldeans: "The word from me is certain (firm)."
Source:    Dan 2:5 (WLC, public domain; אַזְדָּא is a Persian loan, see lexicon.md)

The plural form in Dan 3:16 is a perfect followed by a participle: עֲנוֹ … וְאָמְרִין "they answered … and said".

6.2 Decrees and letters

Imperial chancery style, preserved in Ezra and in the king's decrees in Daniel, uses fixed verb formulas:

7. Changes in the later dialects (pointers)

The Elamur team

This page in Markdown → https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/arc/verbs/