🗣️ 18. Compounding, conversion and minor processes

Besides prefixes (16) and suffixes (17), Ukrainian makes words by joining stems (compounding, словоскладання), by shortening phrases to stump compounds and abbreviations (абревіація), by using a word of one class as another (conversion, перехід or транспозиція, chiefly the substantivisation of adjectives and participles), by fusing a phrase into one word (univerbation), by clipping, by blending, by reduplication, and by sound imitation. This chapter covers each in turn: compounds with and without a linking vowel (§1), hyphenated compounds and appositions (§2), compound adjectives (§3), stump compounds and abbreviations (§4), substantivisation and other conversion (§5), univerbation, clipping and blends (§6), reduplication (§7) and onomatopoeia (§8). §9 gives the counts and §10 says how Mova handles these processes. Spelling follows the 2019 orthography's section "Writing words together, with a hyphen, separately" (Правопис слів разом, із дефісом, окремо; Pravopys 2019 §§35–44). Transliteration as in 16.

Compounding is less central in Ukrainian than in German or English. Smal-Stockyj writes that Ukrainian has made "few words by composition compared with German, and those few mostly let their parts be recognised easily", so that the learner gains more from knowing the suffixes and prefixes (Smal-Stockyj 1913, Wortbildung). Simovych agrees that "there are not so many compound words in our language", contrasts it with German and Ancient Greek, and notes that many old compounds are loan translations of Greek church words (живопи́сець, лі́топис, Богоро́диця, миротво́рець, христолю́бець). He also notes that the people use compounds "very gladly" in surnames (Тихово́д, Сивоша́пка, Скорохі́д, Перебийні́с, Вариво́да, Нечита́йло, Непийпи́во) (Simovych 1919 §117). Learned and technical vocabulary has since added thousands of compounds, most of them adjectives (§3) and stump compounds (§4).

1. Compounds with and without a linking vowel

1.1 The linking vowels о and е

Most Ukrainian compounds join two stems with a linking vowel (сполучний голосний, інтерфікс). The choice depends on the first stem (Pravopys 2019 §35.1–2):

The stem's own final vowel can serve as the linking vowel in two cases. One is an indeclinable loan stem in -о, -а (автовокза́л, відеоза́пис, Євросою́з, кінофі́льм, радіокоміте́т, медіалінгві́стика). The other is a numeral (всюдихі́д, двадцятирі́чний, трикілометро́вий, чотирику́тник, семиде́нний; морепроду́кти, сонцестоя́ння; кількаразо́вий, півтораметро́вий, сім'ядо́ля; сторі́ччя, дев'яносторі́чний; двою́рідний, трою́рідний) (§35.2).

1.2 Compounds without a linking vowel

A compound has no linking vowel when (Pravopys 2019 §35.3):

• the first stem ends in a consonant: Болгра́д, Ви́шгород, Ми́ргород, Но́вгород, крайне́бо 'horizon', пі́вдень 'south', хлорбензо́л;
• the first part is the genitive of два, три, чотири in ordinal numerals and related nouns: двохсо́тий, трьохти́сячний, чотирьохмільйо́нний; двохсотрі́ччя;
• the first stem is cut down to a consonant: артпо́лк, драмтеа́тр, міськра́да 'city council', медза́клад 'medical institution' (§4).

1.3 Compound nouns written together

The 2019 text sets out seven types of compound nouns written as one word (Pravopys 2019 §36.1):

Type 4 is a characteristically Slavic and especially Ukrainian pattern, which Simovych singles out as "very curious for Ukrainian" (пройти + світ → пройдисві́т, вернути + воля → верниво́ля, палити + вода → паливо́да, перекотити + поле → перекотипо́ле, перебити + ніс → перебийні́с; Simovych 1919 §117.3). It is no longer productive in the common vocabulary but survives in surnames, nicknames and plant names. The surnames of this type (Нечу́й-Ві́тер, Уби́йвовк, Непи́йвода) are old and still common.

Compound nouns of type 1 are the most productive. Their second part is an agent or action stem from a verb, and they make names of professions, tools and processes in technical language (металорі́з 'metal cutter', трубокла́д 'pipe layer', газогі́н 'gas pipeline').

The element само- 'self' (самовихова́ння, самоврядува́ння 'self-government', самові́дданість 'devotion', самоса́д 'home-grown tobacco') and все- 'all-' (всесвіт 'universe', всемогу́тній 'almighty') make long series. Combined with loan elements of the авто-, біо-, кібер- kind (Pravopys 2019 §35.4; 16 §6.3), they form an open class of compounds written together.

2. Hyphenated compounds and appositions

2.1 Two nouns with a hyphen

Two independent nouns joined without a linking vowel are written with a hyphen. The 2019 text distinguishes two kinds by how they decline (Pravopys 2019 §36.2):

• both parts decline when the compound names a specialty or rank (гінеко́лог-ендокрино́лог, лі́кар-еко́лог, худо́жниця-карикатури́стка, член-кореспонде́нт), opposed notions (купі́вля-про́даж 'purchase and sale', ро́зтяг-стиск), fairy-tale characters (За́йчик-Побіга́йчик, Лиси́чка-Сестри́чка) or some plants (брат-і-сестра́): лі́каря-еко́лога, купі́влі-про́дажу;
• only the second part declines when the first part names a property of the second (бі́знес-план, бі́знес-проє́кт, до́пінг-контро́ль, інтерне́т-вида́ння, компа́кт-диск, піа́р-а́кція, фан-клу́б, фі́тнес-клуб, жар-пти́ця), when it is a lexicalised Greek letter (а́льфа-про́мені, бе́та-ро́зпад), when the two together form a single military rank, office or unit (генера́л-майо́р, прем'є́р-міні́стр, кілова́т-годи́на), a musical note (до-дієз, сі-бемо́ль), an intermediate compass point (норд-ве́ст) or a plant name (сон-трава́): бі́знес-пла́ну, прем'є́р-міні́стра.

Compound nouns of two stems with the linking о that name two peoples or states also take a hyphen: монго́ло-тата́ри, у́гро-фі́ни, А́встро-Уго́рщина (§36.2.3). A first part shared by two compounds is left with a "hanging" hyphen: а́удіо- та відеопроду́кція, ра́діо- й телеапарату́ра, те́пло- й гідроелектроста́нції (§36.2.4).

The English-type first element in бізнес-, інтернет-, онлайн-, фітнес-, піар- is the most productive source of new hyphenated compounds. Its use measured in the 2024 Leipzig news sample (§9): forms beginning with інтернет- 420, онлайн- 742, прем'єр-міністр- 1 051, бізнес-план- 26 (written together: 0), фан-клуб- 21 (together: 1). The hyphen is the norm and usage follows it for these words. Contrast the elements віце-, екс-, топ-, which the 2019 text writes together and where usage still divides (16 §6.3).

2.2 Appositions

A noun that qualifies another noun as an apposition (прикладка) is joined to it with a hyphen or written separately, by position and meaning (Pravopys 2019 §37):

• hyphen when the qualifying noun follows the qualified one: вовк-жадню́га 'greedy wolf', ді́вчина-розу́мниця 'clever girl', земля́-ма́ти 'Mother Earth', коза́к-характе́рник 'Cossack sorcerer', краї́на-інве́стор, мо́ва-джерело́ 'source language', Украї́на-не́нька 'Mother Ukraine'; when a generic name follows a specific one (Дніпро́-ріка́, звіробі́й-трава́); when the two can change places but the second qualifies (учи́тель-фі́зик and фі́зик-учи́тель); and in terms where the qualifying noun has lost its own meaning (гриб-паразит, жук-короїд, за́єць-руса́к, льон-довгуне́ць);
• no hyphen when the qualifying noun comes first (не́нька Украї́на) or when it is the specific name after a generic one (гора́ Сапу́н, держа́ва Украї́на, мі́сто Ки́їв, ріка́ Дніпро́).

Appositions after the noun with a hyphen are frequent in folk and song style (Украї́на-не́нька, земля́-ма́ти, ді́вчина-голу́бка) and in the feminine compounds жінка-водій (17 §2.1).

3. Compound adjectives

Compound adjectives are by far the largest class of compounds in the dictionary (§9). The 2019 rules separate them by the relation between the parts (Pravopys 2019 §40):

Written together (the first part is subordinate to the second):

• adjectives from compound nouns written together: агрокульту́рний (агрокульту́ра), лісостепови́й (лісосте́п), чорнозе́мний (чорно́зем);
• adjectives from a noun and the adjective agreeing with it: високоврожа́йний (висо́кий урожа́й) 'high-yield', загальноосві́тній (зага́льна осві́та) 'general-education', західноукраї́нський (За́хідна Украї́на), зовнішньополіти́чний (зо́внішня полі́тика), сільськогоспода́рський (сільське́ господа́рство), східнослов'я́нський (схі́дні слов'я́ни);
• adjectives from a verb and its object: волелю́бний 'freedom-loving', деревообро́бний 'woodworking', машинобудівни́й, сміттєочисни́й. If the second part comes from a prefixed verb, a hyphen is used: ванта́жно-розванта́жувальний, контро́льно-вимі́рювальний;
• adjectives of adverb + adjective or participle: важкорозчи́нний, сильноді́йний; високоопла́чуваний, довгоочі́куваний, новоутво́рений. But adverbs from relational adjectives keep their own stress and stay separate: абсолю́тно сухи́й, нау́ково обґрунто́ваний, суспі́льно кори́сний.

Written with a hyphen (the parts are coordinate, or one adds a nuance):

• from hyphenated compound nouns: генера́л-губерна́торський, ди́зель-мото́рний, соціа́л-демократи́чний, у́гро-фі́нський, Іва́но-франкі́вський;
• two adjective stems naming independent notions: агра́рно-промисло́вий, військо́во-морськи́й 'naval', науко́во-експеримента́льний, навча́льно-виховни́й, мо́вно-літерату́рний; first stems in -ико: істо́рико-культу́рний, лі́рико-епі́чний, ме́дико-генети́чний; first stems without an adjectival suffix but semantically coordinate: м'я́со-моло́чний, о́воче-картопля́ний, зо́лото-валю́тний;
• qualities with a nuance, shades and combinations of colours: гіркува́то-соло́ний, ки́сло-соло́дкий; те́мно-зеле́ний, сі́ро-голуби́й, жо́вто-блаки́тний 'yellow and blue'; but жовтогаря́чий, червоногаря́чий (single colours) together;
• intermediate compass points: півде́нно-за́хідний, півні́чно-схі́дний;
• a numeral in digits plus a stem: 20-поверхо́вий, 125-рі́чний, 90-метро́вий.

The pair жо́вто-блаки́тний 'yellow and blue' (two colours, the flag) and жовтогаря́чий 'orange' (one colour) shows the logic: two colours side by side get the hyphen, a single mixed colour does not.

4. Stump compounds and abbreviations

4.1 Types

Ukrainian shortens multiword names in three ways (Pravopys 2019 §§35.4.1, 61):

• stump compounds (складноскорочені слова) of cut stems, or of a cut stem and a whole word, written together: адмінресу́рс, бухо́блік 'accounting', держми́то 'state duty', держслу́жба 'civil service', Кабмі́н 'Cabinet of Ministers', комба́т 'battalion commander', міськра́да, нарде́п 'MP' (from наро́дний депута́т), профспі́лка 'trade union', соцмере́жа 'social network', спецзавда́ння, медперсона́л, військкома́т 'military enlistment office', and the festival Святве́чір 'Christmas Eve'. They decline as ordinary nouns of the gender of their last part: у міськра́ді, нарде́пові, у Кабміні;
• initial abbreviations (ініціальні абревіатури) written in capitals: of letters, read by letter names (ЗСУ [зе-ес-у] 'Armed Forces of Ukraine', СБУ, ТЦК, МЗС, ЦВК), or of sounds, read as words (ООН 'UN', ГЕС 'hydroelectric station', ЮНЕСКО, МАГАТЕ, НАТО);
• mixed forms: an initial part in capitals and a cut part in lower case (КУпАП 'Code of Administrative Offences', НДІхімма́ш, БілАЗ), or the conjunction і in lower case («КіЖ» 'Culture and Life').

Stump compounds of institutions that are proper names take a capital (Укрзалізни́ця 'Ukrainian Railways', Укрпрофра́да, Київене́рго). Generic ones are written in lower case (медуніверсите́т, сільра́да) (§61.1).

4.2 Declension and gender

Sound abbreviations that end in a consonant decline like masculine nouns of the second declension. The endings are written in lower case directly after the abbreviation, with no apostrophe or other mark: у ЦУ́Мі, з ЦУ́Му, ТЮ́Гу, ТЮ́Гом. Their suffixal derivatives are written in lower case: оо́нівський, тю́гівець (Pravopys 2019 §61.2). Letter abbreviations usually do not decline. They take the gender and number of the head word of the full name in agreement: ЗСУ звільни́ли 'the Armed Forces (pl.) liberated' (Зброй́ні Си́ли, plural), СБУ затри́мала (Слу́жба, feminine), МЗС заяви́ло (Міністе́рство, neuter). ТЦК agrees as a masculine (ТЦК ви́дав пові́стку) because its head is центр (територіа́льний центр комплектува́ння).

A letter abbreviation with a number takes a hyphen: Ан-124, Ту-154, ЖЕК-9, Київ-1; class and building numbers too: 7-А клас, корпус 3-А (§35.5).

4.3 Frequency

Abbreviations and stump compounds are a mark of news, official and military language. In the 2024 news sample (word-string counts, all forms): ЗСУ 10 671, ТЦК 4 355, соцмереж- 1 839, нардеп- 1 330, Кабмін- 582, військкомат- 535, спецоперац- 417, медзаклад- 262, держслужб- 85. In UD Ukrainian the feature Abbr=Yes marks 848 of 122 750 words in IU (most often р 'year', грн 'hryvnia', ст, т, млрд, тис, УПА, млн) and 226 of 109 166 in ParlaMint (ЦВК 31, НДП 13, НАТО 10, МЗС 10).

5. Substantivisation and other conversion

5.1 Adjectives and participles as nouns

The main kind of conversion in Ukrainian is substantivisation (субстантивація): an adjective or participle used as a noun keeps its adjectival declension but behaves as a noun in the clause. Many such words have become nouns in the dictionary:

Two compound substantivised adjectives are written together by a special note: військовополоне́ний 'prisoner of war', військовозобов'я́заний 'person liable for military service' (Pravopys 2019 §40.2, note).

UD Ukrainian tags such words as NOUN with the adjective as lemma. IU has 182 NOUN tokens with a lemma in -ий (hard adjectives; військовий, знайомий, чужий, лютий 'February'); ParlaMint has 96 (військовий 33, уповноважений 23, головуючий 11). In the 2024 news sample the plural forms of war-related substantivised participles are frequent: поранен(і, их, ими) 1 728, загибл(і, их, ими) 1 944, полонен(і, их, ими) 803; and вихідн(і, их, ими) 1 094, чергов(ий, ого, ому, им) 1 015 (all forms, including adjectival uses).

5.2 Other conversions

• Noun forms as adverbs. The instrumental of many nouns has become an adverb: ча́сом 'sometimes', бі́гом 'at a run', ве́чором 'in the evening', ці́лим ро́ком 'all year'. With a preposition, the adverbs written together of 16 §1 (вгорі́, назавжди́; Pravopys 2019 §41).
• Nouns as prepositions. шля́хом 'by means of', про́тягом 'during', внаслі́док 'as a result of', за допомо́гою 'with the help of', на чолі́ з 'headed by'. They govern the genitive.
• Verbs as interjections and the reverse. Predicative interjections act as verbs of sudden action: Він — бух у во́ду 'He — plop into the water'; А вона́ хлоп две́рима! 'And she — slam (with) the door!' (§8).
• Zero derivation of nouns from verbs. біг 'run', ви́хід 'exit', за́хист 'defence', пере́клад 'translation', ро́зпис 'schedule' are traditionally treated as zero-suffix derivation (17 §4.2).
• Pronouns, numerals and particles as nouns in fixed uses: своє́ 'one's own (business)', своя́ 'one's own (woman)', сто 'hundred (grams of vodka)', ні́ (a refusal).

6. Univerbation, clipping and blends

6.1 Univerbation

Univerbation (універбація) turns an adjective + noun phrase into one word, usually with the suffix -к(а), or by dropping the noun and keeping the adjective (ellipsis). It is a strong and productive colloquial process:

In the 2024 news sample вишиванк- has 166 forms and маршрутк- 76, against мобілк- 4. The forms in -ка are colloquial except where, as with вишиванка, the single word has become the only name. Мобільний as a noun is frequent but cannot be counted apart from the adjective in a word list.

6.2 Clipping

Clipping (усічення) is mainly a feature of slang and student speech: універ (університе́т), комп (комп'ю́тер), інфа́ (інформа́ція), про́га (програ́ма), препо́д (виклада́ч, from Russian преподаватель), дисе́р (дисерта́ція). Clipped forms take a declension by their final sound (в універі, на компі). They hardly occur in news (універ 2 forms, комп 2 in the 2024 sample). Their place is in the colloquial register and in youth slang (19. The lexicon: where the words come from, multiword expressions and register, 37. Register and variation). Several of them come through Russian slang (препод, мобіла) and so belong to the mixed zone between colloquial speech and surzhyk described in 8. Regional varieties, diaspora and surzhyk.

6.3 Blends

Blends (контамінації, телескопні слова) join the beginning of one word to the end of another. They are rare in the standard vocabulary but frequent in political and wartime coinages, satire and advertising. The most widely used recent example is раши́зм 'Rashism' (раша 'Russia', from English Russia, + фаши́зм 'fascism') with раши́ст. In the 2024 news sample рашист- has 290 forms and рашиз- 26. Blends are lexical items with an evaluative charge, and a reference grammar records their structure; their register is described in 19. The lexicon: where the words come from, multiword expressions and register.

7. Reduplication

Reduplication (редуплікація, повтор) is a grammatical means of intensity in Ukrainian, and the 2019 orthography regulates it as a kind of compound written with a hyphen (Pravopys 2019 §35.5.1; §41.3.5 for adverbs):

Two identical nouns or numerals, one in the nominative and the other in the instrumental, are written separately: кіне́ць кінце́м 'in the end', честь че́стю 'properly', чин чи́ном 'in due order', одни́м одна́ 'all alone' (§35.5, note). Simovych adds сумни́й-невесе́лий 'very sad', оди́н-одні́ський 'all alone', сам-самі́ський, гра́ти-виграва́ти 'play on and on', життя́-буття́ (Simovych 1919 §117). The combination with an intensive suffix (сам-самісінький, рад-радісінький) is one of the most expressive constructions of the language (17 §3.4).

Register measured. Reduplication of the X-X type (identical parts joined by a hyphen) is a feature of narrative and spoken style. In Brown-UK it occurs 80 times per million words in fiction (category I) and 4 per million in press texts (category A). The 2024 news sample has 3.4 per million (46 tokens in 13.7 million). Excluding nonce cases and names (Баден-Баден, дабл-дабл), the news types are далеко-далеко 3, ні-ні 3, довго-довго 2, довгі-довгі 2, ніколи-ніколи 1, ой-ой 1. Reduplication is also frequent in folk song, where it fills the metre (ой ішла, ішла дівчина).

8. Onomatopoeia and interjections

Ukrainian has a large stock of sound-imitating words (звуконаслі́дування, ономатопе́я): гав 'woof', ня́в 'miaow', кукуріку́ 'cock-a-doodle-doo', ку-ку́ 'cuckoo', кря́-кря́ 'quack', бах 'bang', бух 'thud', дзень 'ding', тік-та́к, тук-ту́к 'knock-knock', гуп, хлюп 'splash', шу-шу́ 'whisper'. Repeated and rhyming ones are written with a hyphen: гей-ге́й, ґе-ґе-ґе́, дзень-дзеле́нь, курли́-курли́, ого-го-го́, ой-ой-о́й, тьох-тьо́х, and also їй-бо́гу, їй-пра́во 'honestly' (Pravopys 2019 §35.5.4).

They are a source of derivation:

• verbs in -а-, -ка-, -ота-/-оті-, -ну-: га́вкати 'bark', ня́вкати 'miaow', кукуріка́ти, кря́кати, дзеле́нчати 'ring', цокоті́ти 'clatter', шепоті́ти 'whisper', бу́хати — бу́хнути, гу́пати — гу́пнути (semelfactive -ну-, 16 §2.4);
• nouns in -іт (га́вкіт 'barking', цо́кіт 'clatter', ту́піт 'stamping', шепі́т 'whisper'), -ання (ня́вкання), and zero suffix (гук 'shout');
• predicative interjections with the force of a past-tense verb of sudden action (А він — гульк у кущі! 'And he — dived into the bushes!'; Аж тут — бац!), described in 13. Verbs and 38. Dialogue and discourse markers.

VESUM tags 394 lemma lines as onomat (бабах, ба-бах, бам-бам, бац, …) and 495 as intj.

9. Counts

All counts were made on 2026-11-06.

VESUM (release 6.8.6; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0, counts only). Lemma lines whose lemma contains a hyphen, by part of speech: adjectives 4 642, nouns 4 457, adverbs 886, indeclinables 305, interjections 124, particles 26, prepositions 25, conjunctions 17. Of the hyphenated adjective lemmas, 4 115 (88.6%) have the linking vowel о, е or є before the hyphen (автомобільно-залізничний, жовтаво-червоний, науково-документальний). The rest are of the генерал-губернаторський, гель-хроматографічний type or place names (михайло-лукашівський). Lemma lines tagged abbr: nouns 2 295, adjectives 173, indeclinables 24, adverbs 10, verbs 5. Tagged onomat: 394.

UD Ukrainian 2.18 (IU: CC BY-NC-SA, counts only; ParlaMint: CC BY-SA):

The hyphen counts differ because the two treebanks tokenise hyphenated words differently. ParlaMint keeps them as one token (житлово-комунального 22, житлово-комунальні 21, все-таки 16, По-перше 12, осінньо-зимовий 9, українсько-російського 5, врешті-решт 4). IU splits most of them into parts and hyphen tokens. What it keeps whole are mainly prepositions and pronouns (з-під, з-за, де-не-де, все-таки, по-різному, хто-небудь). Any count of compounds over UD Ukrainian has to take that into account.

Brown-UK (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0, counts only): press A and fiction I, about 250 000 word tokens each, for reduplication (§7).

Leipzig news 2024 (ukr_news_2024_1M, CC BY; 13 658 159 Cyrillic word tokens; hyphens and apostrophes kept inside words; case-folded): §§2.1, 4.3, 5.1, 6, 7.

10. How Mova handles compounds and minor processes

Mova does not analyse Ukrainian compounds, abbreviations, conversion or reduplication. What exists:

• Hyphenated words are one token in kg. The kg tokenizer (kg/src/uk.rs, tokenize) treats a hyphen, an apostrophe (', ’, ʼ) as a joiner inside a word when a letter follows. So житлово-комунальний, бізнес-план, ледве-ледве, з-під are single tokens, which are then looked up whole in VESUM (kg/src/morph.rs). A hyphenated compound VESUM lists is analysed. A new one (онлайн-курс if absent) gets no analysis, and the sentence is rejected. Reduplication is not recognised as such: ледве-ледве is found only if VESUM has it as a lemma.
• The English tokenizer learns the hyphen convention per treebank. en tok-eval builds its dictionary of hyphenated words from the training file and chooses a default from the majority (hyphen_keep_default in en/src/tok.rs). On UD Ukrainian IU it learns "split" (150 kept, 370 split in train). On ParlaMint it learns "keep" (210 kept, 0 split). The token F1 on dev is 99.05 for IU, where the remaining misses include hyphenated words split where UD keeps them (хенд-мейд, хоч-не-хоч), and 99.95 for ParlaMint (2026-11-06, two runs identical). Mova has no Ukrainian rule of its own for when a hyphenated word is one word.
• Substantivised adjectives are a known gap of the kg parser. The kg README lists "substantivized adjectives ('першим' as the noun 'перше')" among the error causes it does not handle (kg — the Mova knowledge graph, manual evaluation). The grammar code has no flag for a noun with adjectival declension. Such a word is analysed only as the adjective VESUM lists, and its role in the fact is then wrong or the sentence is rejected.
• Abbreviations. VESUM's abbr tag is not kept in the kg grammar code (Gram::from_vesum in kg/src/gram.rs ignores it). The agreement of letter abbreviations with the head of their full name (ЗСУ звільнили, plural) is not modelled. The English tree parser sees abbreviations only as NNP or NN by their UD part of speech (xpos_of in en/src/main.rs).
• Onomatopoeia and interjections are passed through with the VESUM part of speech (onomat, intj), which kg maps to its classes onomat and intj (POS_NAMES in kg/src/gram.rs). Predicative interjections are not treated as predicates.

What would be needed. A compound splitter that uses the linking-vowel rules of §1 and the hyphen rules of §§2–3 to find the two stems and look each up separately, so that an unlisted compound still gets its head and its grammar. A list of abbreviations with their full forms and the gender and number of their heads, for agreement. A flag for substantivised adjectives in the grammar code, so that черговий in subject position is read as a noun. A reduplication rule (X-X, X-preX, X X-ісінький) that reads the repeated form as one word with an intensity mark. None of this is built.

Sources for this chapter

• Український правопис (2019), approved by Cabinet of Ministers resolution No. 437 of 22 May 2019: §§35 (linking vowels; written together and with a hyphen), 36 (compound nouns), 37 (appositions), 40 (compound adjectives), 41 (adverbs), 61 (stump compounds and abbreviations). Official document, not protected by copyright. Library books/u/uk/ukrainskyi-pravopys-2019 (uk-gram-pravopys-2019). archive.org/details/6032727-Ukr-Pravopys-2019
• Simovych, Vasyl'. 1919. Hramatyka ukrajins'koji movy dlja samonavčannja ta v dopomohu škil'nij nauci. Kyiv–Leipzig. §117 (compounds, imperative compounds, surnames, paired words). Public domain. Library books/s/si/simovych-1919-hramatyka-ukrainskoi-movy-dlia (uk-gram-simovych-1919).
• Smal-Stockyj, Stephan. 1913. Ruthenische Grammatik. Berlin/Leipzig: Göschen. Introduction to Wortbildung (§§10–14). Public domain. Library books/s/st/stockyj-1913-ruthenische-grammatik (uk-gram-smal-stockyj-1913).
• Sokolova, S. O. 2023. Pravopys sliv razom, iz defisom, okremo v zahal'nij strukturi «Ukrajins'koho pravopysu» 2019 roku. Ukrajins'ka mova 3(87): 102–115. Library card CC BY 4.0; the article prints CC BY-NC-ND 4.0, so paraphrased only (sokolova-2023-razom-defis-okremo). Used for the history of the section (1928, 1946, 1993, 2019). doi.org/10.15407/ukrmova2023.03.102
• VESUM (dict_uk), release 6.8.6. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0, counts only.
• UD Ukrainian IU and ParlaMint 2.18; Brown-UK (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0, counts only); Leipzig ukr_news_2024_1M (CC BY; Goldhahn, Eckart & Quasthoff 2012); counts of 2026-11-06.
• Mova: kg/src/uk.rs, kg/src/morph.rs, kg/src/gram.rs, kg — the Mova knowledge graph, en/src/tok.rs, en/src/main.rs.

This page in Markdown → https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/uk/18-compounding-conversion-minor/