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English grammar seeds: the noun phrase (en/seeds/nominal)

A seed is a short Markdown note holding one piece of knowledge about English grammar, together with its source (a page of a reference grammar, a UD guideline or a paper). The name follows the image of a fruit stone: the seed is the kernel from which a rule grows. Every seed has the same sections:

This folder, nominal, covers the noun phrase of the English parser en: articles and other determiners, predeterminers and their order, adjectives in attributive and predicative use, noun number (count, mass, pluralia tantum, collectives), numerals, compounds and names (compound, flat, nmod:desc, appos), the possessive ('s, nmod:poss, double and group genitives), personal, possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, indefinite and relative pronouns, and clauses attached to nouns (acl, acl:relcl). Sibling folders are morph (inflection and word formation), verbal (the verb and the clause), lexicon (valency) and errors (typical errors of parsers, language models and learners).

How a seed becomes a rule

The en/build.rs script compiles the lexicon (data/lemmas.tsv, data/forms.tsv) into static hash tables and word constants; it does not read seeds. The ```rule blocks are loaded and parsed by the deterministic Rust rule engine en::expert (en/src/expert.rs) into typed structures (tags, relations and features are enums, not strings). A cargo test gate checks that every seed parses and that rule ids are unique; a malformed rule is a parse error, never silently skipped.

A rule block looks like this:

rule: en.nominal.det-before-head
what: a determiner (det, det:predet) precedes its head
match: n[]; d[rel~det, head=n]
require: d[before=n]
severity: error
source: Poutsma GLME I Ch. VIII §150; UD en det, det:predet

The CLI command en expert-check <seeds-dir> [--gold <gold.conllu>] <file.conllu>… runs all rules over CoNLL-U files and prints how often each rule fired, with up to three examples per rule (EN_EXPERT_LIST=1 prints the full list of violations). Typical uses: validating annotation from a parser, a language model or a silver pipeline; giving a correction pass hints such as "word 5 violates rule X"; and constraining the parser.

Seeds without a rule block still document a construction and the UD analysis expected for it. Some seeds point to a rule that lives in another folder (for example errors/…).

Abbreviations used in the sources: Poutsma GLME = H. Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English (1904–1929), volume (I–IV), chapter, section; Curme 1931 = G. O. Curme, A Grammar of the English Language, vol. III Syntax (1931); Santorini 1990 = B. Santorini, Part-of-Speech Tagging Guidelines for the Penn Treebank Project; UD en = the Universal Dependencies English guidelines (docs/_en/…), UD u = the universal guidelines (docs/_u-dep/…); identifiers such as P17-1074 or 2023.udw-1.7 are ACL Anthology ids.

a-adjectives

Adjectives in a-: afraid, asleep, alive — predicative only

Gist. Adjectives with the old prefix a- (once a preposition: on sleep → asleep) — afraid, asleep, awake, alive, alike, alone, aware, ablaze, ashamed, akin — are predicative and almost never stand before a noun. Before a noun other words are used: a sleeping child, a live fish, a lone rider, a frightened man. Conditions and exceptions. After the noun they are possible: the only man alive, the bravest man alive. With an intensifier they occasionally occur attributively (a wide-awake child). Poutsma also lists ill among predicative-only adjectives. Examples. ✓ The baby is asleep.; ✓ the greatest poet alive; ✗ an afraid dog. In UD. Such an ADJ as a prenominal amod is suspicious. Rules. en.nominal.a-adj-not-prenominal (warn): an *a-*adjective that is amod of a noun must follow it. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXVIII §8 b (after Onions, Advanced English Syntax §25).

a-an-sound

a or an — by sound, not by letter

Gist. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound, an before a vowel sound. What matters is the pronunciation of the next word, not its first letter. Conditions and exceptions. a unit, a European, a ewe, such a one (initial [j] or [w]); an hour, an heir, an honest man, an honour (silent h); letter names and abbreviations go by sound: an MP, an FBI agent, a UN report. Before an unstressed h- syllable, nineteenth-century British usage had an historical novel, an hotel; today a historical prevails. Archaic: an union, an universal, such an one. Nonstandard a before a vowel (a apple) is an error in the text. Examples. a university; an hour; an X-ray; a history, but older an historian. In UD. a and an share the lemma and features, so the annotation does not record the choice: this is a check of the text, not of the annotation. Rules. None in this seed; checking needs word adjacency and pronunciation (e.g. a pronouncing dictionary such as CMUdict). Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXXI §3 with notes II–V.

absolute-genitive

Genitive without a noun: at the baker's, St Paul's, It's John's

Gist. A genitive can stand without the noun it belongs to. Poutsma distinguishes three cases: the noun has just been mentioned (My car is faster than John's); a house, shop, firm or church is understood (at the baker's, at my aunt's, St Paul's); the genitive is predicative (The book is John's). Conditions and exceptions. A classifying genitive (a lady's umbrella) is hardly ever used without its noun; the noun is repeated: a gentleman's umbrella and a lady's umbrella. Replacing it with that of John for a simple name is "not in the spirit of the language" (Poutsma). Examples. We met at Mary's.; I ate at McDonald's.; This pen is Tom's. In UD. The possessor noun takes over the role of the whole phrase (obl, nsubj, obj, predicate root), and case('s) stays attached to it. Rules. None; such a POS is legitimate and differs from nmod:poss only by the missing noun. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXIV §45–49; Curme 1931 §10 II.

absolute-possessives

Independent possessives: mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs

Gist. Independent ("absolute", Poutsma) possessive pronouns replace a whole "possessive + noun" phrase: This book is mine (= my book), Yours is better. They never stand before a noun. Conditions and exceptions. After a noun with an article, demonstrative or numeral, possession is expressed with of + the independent form: a friend of mine, that dog of yours, two books of his (double genitive). His and its have one form for both roles. Archaic mine eyes is the old prenominal form before a vowel. Examples. Yours is better.; a friend of mine; The choice is theirs. In UD. PRON, XPOS PRP, Poss=Yes|PronType=Prs + Person/Number, without Case; the lemma is the dependent form (mine → my, yours → your). The relation follows the role in the phrase or clause (nsubj, obj, nmod with case of, predicate), never nmod:poss. Rules. en.nominal.abs-poss-feats (error): mine/yours/hers/ours/theirs are PRP with Poss=Yes and no Case. en.nominal.abs-poss-not-det (error): they are never nmod:poss. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIII §1, §21–23; Curme 1931 §57 5 "Substantive Forms of Possessive Adjectives"; UD en feat/Poss.

adj-as-noun

Adjective instead of a noun: the rich, the wounded, the English

Gist. An adjective can name a class of people or an abstraction without a noun: the rich, the poor, the wounded, the unknown, the English. Poutsma calls this partial conversion: the word takes no plural or genitive -s and denotes all such people. Full conversion yields a real noun with plural, article a and numerals: a native — natives, valuables, sweets. Conditions and exceptions. Nationality words in a sibilant (the English, the French, the Swiss, the Chinese) are partially converted; those in -an (Americans, Germans) are full nouns. A partially converted adjective takes a plural verb: The rich are different. Examples. The poor get poorer.; the best of friends; the natives (already a noun). In UD. A partially converted adjective stays ADJ (JJ, Degree): it takes det and the role of the phrase (nsubj, obj, nmod…), but has no Number (the UD 2.18 English registry does not allow Number on ADJ) and no nummod. With plural -s or a numeral it is a NOUN. English as a language name is PROPN in EWT. Rules. en.nominal.adj-no-number (error): an ADJ has no Number. en.nominal.adj-no-nummod (warn): a numeral attached to an ADJ (three whites) signals a full noun. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXIX §1, §13–15; Curme 1931 §57 "Substantive Function of Adjectives"; UD 2.18 English feature registry.

adj-before-article

so big a house: adjective before the indefinite article

Gist. When an adjective is modified by so, as, too, how, however, the indefinite article comes after the adjective: so big a house, too good a chance, as good a scholar as he, how long a wait. Without such a modifier an adjective cannot precede the article. Conditions and exceptions. A parallel order with the adjective after the noun exists: a power so strong (Curme). In such a big house, such is a predeterminer and the adjective follows the article. Quite a, rather a are predeterminers. Poutsma: likewise no + comparative (no better a man). Examples. ✓ too costly a sacrifice; ✓ so harsh an answer; ✗ big a house. In UD. amod(house, big), det(house, a), advmod(big, so): the adjective is to the left of the det. Rules. en.nominal.adj-before-article (warn): an amod adjective before a/an of the same noun must have an advmod so/as/too/how/however/this/that/no. Sources. Poutsma GLME I, Ch. VIII §151, §153; Curme 1931 §10 I 1.

adj-position

Adjective position: before the noun; after it only with a reason

Gist. An attributive adjective in English precedes its noun (Curme: "adherent"). It follows the noun (Curme: "appositive") when it has its own dependents (a man proud of his son, a plan so stupid that…), when several adjectives are joined by a conjunction (a laugh musical but malicious), and after pronouns in -thing/-body (something new). Such a postposed adjective works like a reduced relative clause. Conditions and exceptions. Fixed postpositives (often French in origin): court martial, Poet Laureate, Postmaster General, President elect, the sum total, from time immemorial, God Almighty. Adjectives in -able/-ible after a superlative or only: the best style possible, the only person available. Native ones: the amount due, the people involved/concerned/present, five years old. An adjective with a dependent can precede the noun only in so/too/as + adjective + a + noun (separate seed) or with hyphens (an easy-to-read book). Examples. ✓ a proud man; ✓ a man proud of his son; ✓ the people involved; ✗ a proud of his son man. In UD. amod (ADJ) is normally to the left of its head; to the right of a NOUN it usually has its own dependents or is a fixed postpositive (available, involved, old, possible, due, left…). Rules. en.nominal.postposed-adj-has-deps (warn): an amod adjective after its noun must have a dependent, unless it is a listed fixed postpositive (involved, concerned, present, due, left, old, dead, dear, elect, simple, total, martial, politic, laureate, general, immemorial, incarnate, almighty, minor) or ends in -able/-ible. Sources. Curme 1931 §10 I 1 and §10 I 1 a; Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXVIII §6; UD en dep/amod.

adnominal-noun-singular

A noun modifier stands in the singular

Gist. A noun modifying another noun (shoe shop, apple tree) is usually singular even when the idea is plural: toothbrush, a three-volume novel, a five-foot rope, a ten-year-old boy, rose cultivation. Conditions and exceptions. Fixed plural exceptions: sales manager, sports car, arms race, savings account, systems analyst, customs officer; with a plural head, women writers, gentlemen farmers. A number + measure used as a modifier also lacks -s: a 2 year old, a two-hour delay. Examples. a five-dollar bill; a two-hour meeting; sales figures (exception). In UD. The modifier is a compound before the head. Rules. None; legitimate plural exceptions are too many, so number inside a compound is only a hint for a human reviewer. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXV §31–35; Poutsma GLME I, Ch. IV §8 (iron bedstead, Gladstone bag — not apposition).

appos

Apposition (appos): a second name for the same thing, to the right

Gist. An appositive is a second noun phrase that names the same referent as the first and specifies it: Sam, my brother, arrived; the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). Poutsma distinguishes identity (Mr. Lloyd George, the late Prime Minister), kind with genus (the planet Mars) and quantity with substance (a dozen collars, a little wine); Curme distinguishes loose apposition (with commas) and close apposition (my brother John). Conditions and exceptions. In UD appos is used only for identity of two full noun phrases. Quantity with substance uses other relations (a couple cookies — nmod:unmarked); a noun modifier (iron bedstead) is compound; a clause attached to a noun (the fact that…) is acl, not appos; the city of Rome is nmod with of. Examples. Sam, my brother, → appos(Sam, brother); Bill (John's cousin) → appos(Bill, cousin). In UD. appos is always to the right of its anchor; the dependent is mostly NOUN, PROPN or NUM. An appos clause with the conjunction that is suspicious (should be acl). Rules. en.nominal.appos-right (error): the appositive follows the word it specifies. en.nominal.appos-not-content-clause (warn): an appos with mark that/whether should be acl. Sources. Poutsma GLME I, Ch. IV §4–8; Curme 1931 §10 III "Apposition"; UD en dep/appos, dep/nmod-unmarked.

articles

Articles the, a, an

Gist. English has two articles: definite the and indefinite a/an. An is not a separate word but the form of a before a vowel sound, so both share one lemma. Conditions and exceptions. An article is a determiner of a noun or of an adjective used as a noun (the rich). The letter a as a name or list label (a), Type A, vitamin A) is not an article: it is NOUN, SYM or LS. Examples. the book; a book; an apple; an hour. In UD. the: DET, DT, Definite=Def|PronType=Art. a/an: DET, DT, Definite=Ind|PronType=Art, lemma a. Relation det. Rules. en.nominal.the-feats (error): the is DET DT with Definite=Def, PronType=Art. en.nominal.a-an-feats (error): a/an is DET DT with lemma a, Definite=Ind, PronType=Art. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXXI §1–3; UD en feat/Definite, feat/PronType.

attributive-only

Attributive only: main, mere, sheer, utter, chief

Gist. Some adjectives occur only with a noun and are never predicates: main, mere, sheer, utter, chief, principal, lone, former, latter, very (the very man), and relational adjectives that stand for a genitive or adverb (a daily paper, a wooden house, a medical school). Poutsma: nobody says The journals are daily — one says The journals appear daily. Conditions and exceptions. In The main thing is…, main modifies a noun; it is not a predicate. Former, latter without a noun are converted (the latter is…), which is not predicative use. Live "broadcast live" can be a predicate (The show is live), so it is not on the list. Examples. ✓ the main road; ✓ sheer luck; ✗ The road is main.; ✗ His luck was sheer. In UD. Such an ADJ with a cop child is suspicious. Rules. en.nominal.attributive-only-adj (warn): main/mere/sheer/utter/chief/principal/lone have no cop dependent. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXVIII §7.

a-with-plural

The indefinite article and the plural

Gist. A/an comes from "one" and goes with a singular count noun. With a plural it is possible only through a quantity word that turns the group into "one portion": a few days, a great many people, a good two hours, a further 45 days. Conditions and exceptions. In a hundred people the article belongs to the numeral (= one hundred); in a lot of people, to lot. A measure taken as a whole: a three months, a twelve months (literary). In a classifying genitive (a children's story) the article belongs to story, not to children. Examples. ✓ a few days; ✓ a good many years; ✓ a further 45 days; ✗ a books. In UD. det(a) on a noun with Number=Plur almost always co-occurs with an amod few/many or a nummod on the same noun. Rules. The rule is en.errors.a-singular in Determiner and noun — same number. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXVI §17; Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XL §58–62 (a few), §89 (a many); UD en dep/nmod-poss (a children's story).

classifying-genitive

Classifying genitive: a children's story, a day's work

Gist. A genitive can be individual — "whose exactly" (John's car) — or classifying — "what kind, for whom, how much" (a children's story, a women's college, a fool's errand, a day's work, two weeks' notice). The classifying genitive describes a kind, like an adjective (Poutsma). Conditions and exceptions. Therefore an article with a classifying genitive belongs to the head, not the possessor: in a children's story, a agrees with singular story, not with children. Genitives of measure belong here too: a stone's throw, an hour's drive. Examples. a children's book; a bachelor's degree; a day's journey; two hours' drive. In UD. det(story, a), nmod:poss(story, children), case(children, 's). So a/an is never the det of a plural possessor. Rules. en.nominal.classifying-genitive-det (error): a plural nmod:poss has no det a. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXIV §7, §22–23, §40–44; Curme 1931 §10 II "Descriptive genitive", "Genitive of measure"; UD en dep/nmod-poss.

collective-nouns

Collective nouns: singular form, plural meaning

Gist. Collective nouns of the first type (family, team, government, committee, army, party) are singular in form but name a group; when the members are meant, verb and pronoun may be plural, especially in British English: The committee are divided. Collectives of the second type (people, cattle, police, clergy, vermin) are always plural in meaning: these people, a hundred people. Conditions and exceptions. UD Number follows the form, not the meaning: family is Sing even with are, so subject–verb agreement cannot be checked strictly for collectives. People "nation" has the plural peoples. Examples. My family is/are here.; The police have arrived.; Many people were there. In UD. people is NOUN NNS Number=Plur. Police is annotated inconsistently (NNS Plur or NN Sing). First-type collectives are NN Sing. Rules. en.nominal.people-plural (warn): the noun people is NNS with Number=Plur. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXVI §6–7 and Ch. XXV §27–28 (people, cattle); Curme 1931 §8 1 d and Ch. XXVI "Collective Nouns".

compound

A noun modifier before the head noun: compound

Gist. English readily puts a noun before a noun as a modifier: phone book, oil price, shoe shop, college friend. The head is the last word, the modifier precedes it: a phone book is a book, not a phone. Poutsma treats such a noun as a substitute for a missing adjective (an iron bedstead, Ceylon tea, a Gladstone bag), not as apposition. Conditions and exceptions. Chains have internal structure: [oil price] futures. Proper names with the generic word last (Wall Street, Stanford University, Mirror Lake) are also compound with a right-hand head; the reverse order (Lake Mead, Mount Everest, Hotel California) is flat. Names with a preposition (Bank of America) use ordinary syntax (nmod). Examples. phone book — compound(book, phone); Wall Street — compound(Street, Wall); Lake Mead — flat(Lake, Mead). In UD. compound precedes its nominal head. The subtype compound:prt (verb particle) is a different matter. Rules. en.nominal.compound-head-final (error): a compound dependent of a NOUN/PROPN precedes its head. Sources. UD en dep/compound, dep/nmod-desc (place names); Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXII §1–3; Poutsma GLME I, Ch. IV §8; ACL Anthology 2023.udw-1.7, 2020.udw-1.8.

content-clause-acl

"The fact that…": a content clause on a noun is acl

Gist. Some nouns (fact, idea, hope, belief, news, question, fear, doubt, rumor) take a clause that spells out their content: the fact that he left, the question whether we can do it. This is not a relative clause: there is no gap, and that is a conjunction (it cannot be replaced by which). Curme calls it an "attributive substantive clause" in appositional relation. Conditions and exceptions. Introduced by that, whether, after fear by lest, colloquially by as; it can be reduced to an infinitive (the time to act, his plan to go). Content clauses are mostly finite. A finite acl without mark can also be legitimate: omitted colloquial that (the fact those horses lost…), no matter what…, a quotation used as a modifier (a bang-your-head-against-the-wall moment); hence there is no rule against a missing mark. Examples. the hope that he may recover; the rumor that she quit; no doubt that she was lovely. In UD. The clause head is acl of the noun (not acl:relcl, appos or ccomp); that is SCONJ with mark. A mark that under acl:relcl is an error. Rules. en.nominal.relcl-no-mark-that (error): an acl:relcl has no mark that/whether — such a clause is a content clause (acl). Sources. Curme 1931, Ch. XIII §23 I "Attributive Substantive Clause"; UD en dep/acl (content clauses, as in CGEL); Poutsma GLME II, Ch. XV §1 (substantive clauses).

dem-number

A demonstrative agrees with its noun in number

Gist. This/that go with singular nouns, these/those with plurals: this book, these books. These are the only English determiners that inflect for number. Conditions and exceptions. Colloquial these kind of men is agreement by sense, kind of being felt as a modifier (Curme: colloquial in Britain, substandard in America). A measure as a single whole: that ten years, this three weeks (cf. a three months). Pluralia tantum take these/those: these trousers. Examples. ✓ this book, these books; ~ these kind of things; ✗ this books; ✗ those car. In UD. DET, lemma this (forms this/these) or that (that/those), PronType=Dem, Number=Sing|Plur. The head's number is its Number (Plur or Ptan for plural). Rules. en.nominal.dem-number (warn): a demonstrative det and its noun have the same Number, except that a plural demonstrative may go with a Ptan noun. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXVI §1; Curme 1931, Ch. XXVI §59 7 "Plural of Kind, Sort"; Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXVI §17; ACL Anthology 2020.tacl-1.25 (BLiMP, determiner–noun agreement); P17-1074 (NOUN:NUM error type).

det-before-head

A determiner stands before its noun

Gist. An article, demonstrative or quantifier (the, a, this, every, no, some) precedes the noun it determines. Only numerals, adjectives and noun modifiers can come between them. The determiner itself is always a separate function word, DET. Conditions and exceptions. All, both, each after a noun or pronoun (the boys all left, we both agree, see you all) are no longer determiners but "floating" quantifiers, annotated differently in UD (e.g. nmod:unmarked). Numerals and possessives are not det but nummod and nmod:poss. Examples. the old house; every other day; no such thing; ✗ house the. In UD. UPOS DET, relation det (subtype det:predet for all the, such a) to the nominal head, always to its left. Rules. en.nominal.det-before-head (error): a det/det:predet precedes its head. en.nominal.det-is-det (error): the det relation carries only DET. Sources. Poutsma GLME I, Ch. VIII §150 (article, pronoun and numeral precede adjectives); UD en dep/det, dep/det-predet, dep/nmod-unmarked (See you all).

det-prontype

Determiner types: demonstrative, total, indefinite, negative

Gist. English determiners form a closed list, and each has a fixed semantic type: demonstrative (this, that), total — "all, every" (all, every, each, both), indefinite (some, any, another, either, such), negative (no, neither), interrogative and relative (what, which, whatever). Conditions and exceptions. Many, much, few, little, several, enough are determiners in grammars (and CGEL), but in UD English they are ADJ with amod. Cardinal numerals are NUM with nummod. Each in each other is reciprocal (PronType=Rcp); see the reciprocal seed. Examples. this car (Dem); every day (Tot); some water (Ind); no idea (Neg); what time (Int). In UD. DET; XPOS DT, PDT for predeterminers, WDT for what/which. PronType follows the lemma; demonstratives also have Number. Rules. en.nominal.det-prontype-tot (error): DET all, every, both → PronType=Tot. en.nominal.det-prontype-each (error): each → Tot or Rcp. en.nominal.det-prontype-ind (error): some, any, another, either, such, quite, half → Ind. en.nominal.det-prontype-neg (error): no, neither → Neg. en.nominal.det-prontype-dem (error): this/that → Dem with Number. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXVI §1 (demonstratives), Ch. XXXVII §7–8 (such), Ch. XL (all §1–7, any §16, both §26–28, each §35–36, every §51, neither §109–111, no §114–115); CGELBank (EWT in CGEL analysis: many, several and numerals as category D); UD en feat/PronType.

distributive-singular

every, each, either, neither, another — with the singular

Gist. Every, each, either, neither and another consider items one at a time, so the following noun is singular: every day, each student, either side, another chance. The verb with such a subject is singular too (Curme). Conditions and exceptions. With a numeral or few the group becomes the unit: every two weeks, every few days, another five years — then the noun is plural. Each after a pronoun is a different construction (they each got one). Examples. ✓ every day; ✓ each student; ✓ every three hours; ✗ every days; ✗ each students. In UD. DET with det; the head has Number=Sing. Rules. en.nominal.distributive-sing (warn): a plural noun with det every/each/either/neither/another must have a nummod or amod (e.g. few). Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XL §35–36 (each), §51 (every), §109–111 (neither); Curme 1931 §8 1 e.

double-comparison

more/most + adjective: the adjective itself is in the positive degree

Gist. Comparison is formed either with -er/-est (Poutsma: "terminational") or with more/most (Poutsma: "periphrastic"). Both together — more happier, most unkindest — occur only in older authors (Shakespeare: the most boldest) and in substandard speech. Conditions and exceptions. In more beautiful the adjective itself stays in the positive degree; the degree is carried by more. Fossilized old double forms are no longer felt as such: near, foremost, hindmost (Curme). Compound adjectives: more kind-hearted and kinder-hearted. Examples. ✓ happier; ✓ more careful; ~ more happier (substandard). In UD. more/most are ADV (RBR/RBS) with advmod to the ADJ; the ADJ itself is Degree=Pos. Rules. en.nominal.double-comparison (warn): an ADJ/ADV with advmod more/most is in the positive degree (or is an ADV not tagged RBR/RBS). Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXX §2, §29–30; Curme 1931 §53–54 "Older comparison, pleonasm"; ACL Anthology P17-1074 (ADJ:FORM), W19-4406.

double-genitive

Double genitive: a friend of John's

Gist. When a noun already has an article, demonstrative or numeral, the possessor comes after it, with of and in the genitive at the same time: a friend of my father's, that remark of Tom's, a play of Shakespeare's. Pronouns use the independent form: a friend of mine. Poutsma calls this the "pleonastic genitive". Conditions and exceptions. Most natural after a, this/that, any, some, no or a numeral. Meaning may differ: a picture of John depicts John, a picture of John's belongs to John. Examples. a cousin of Mary's; this idea of yours; two books of his. In UD. The possessor after of is nmod (not nmod:poss, which only precedes the head), with two case dependents: of on the left and 's on the right; a pronoun like mine is nmod with case(of). Rules. en.nominal.double-genitive-nmod (error): a possessor with both case of and POS 's is not nmod:poss. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXIV §33–34; Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIII §23; Curme 1931 §10 II 1 b "Double Genitive".

flat-names

Personal names and "type + name" — flat, head first

Gist. A multiword personal name (Hillary Rodham Clinton) has no grammatical head inside, so UD builds it "flat": all words depend on the first. The same applies to names that begin with a type word (Lake Mead, Mount Everest, Hotel California), numbered identifiers (page 394, Route 66, World War II) and foreign names with function words (Ludwig van Beethoven). Poutsma notes that compound names made of "non-significant" parts behave as one unit (e.g. no article). Conditions and exceptions. A title before a name (Mr., Dr., President) is not flat but nmod:desc; likewise Jr., Inc. after a name. Names with transparent structure (Natural Resources Conservation Service, the King of Sweden) use ordinary syntax. Examples. Barack Obama → flat(Barack, Obama); Mr. Smith → nmod:desc(Smith, Mr.); Route 66 → flat(Route, 66). In UD. flat is always to the right of its head. Mr./Mrs./Ms. are PROPN with nmod:desc to the left of the name. Rules. en.nominal.flat-head-first (error): flat dependents follow the head. The title rule is en.errors.title-desc in Titles (Mr., Dr.) and Inc. — nmod:desc. Sources. UD u flat; UD en dep/flat, dep/nmod-desc (personal names, numbered entities); UD validator (flat is left-to-right); Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXXI §29–30.

group-genitive

Group genitive: 's stands at the end of the group but belongs to its head

Gist. In compound names and phrases, 's is placed after the last word of the whole group: the King of England's power, my father-in-law's house, Julius Caesar's death, someone else's car. But the possessor is the head of the group (King, Caesar, someone), not the last word. Curme: King's of England would sound like a plural, so the -s moved to the end. Conditions and exceptions. Joint possession takes one 's at the end (John and Mary's house); separate possession takes one on each (John's and Mary's books). Before about 1500 one said the King's property of England (Curme). Examples. ✓ the King of England's; ✓ John Smith's car; ✗ the King's of England. In UD. case('s) attaches to the head of the possessor group: in John Smith's to John (Smith is flat of John), in someone else's to someone. So 's never hangs on a flat or compound part of a name. With coordination EWT attaches 's to the last conjunct (conj). Rules. en.nominal.group-genitive (error): the head of POS 's is neither a flat nor a compound dependent. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXIV §3–4; Curme 1931 §10 II 1 d "Group Genitive"; UD en dep/nmod-poss.

hundred-thousand

hundred, thousand, dozen: part of a number or a noun

Gist. After a numeral, hundred, thousand, million, dozen take no -s: two hundred people, three dozen eggs — they are part of the number. The -s forms (hundreds of people, thousands of years, dozens of times) are nouns governing an of-phrase. Conditions and exceptions. A hundred ≈ one hundred: the article replaces one. In a complex number the smaller member specifies the larger: four thousand — "four" attached to "thousand". Examples. ✓ five hundred dollars; ✓ hundreds of dollars; ✗ five hundreds dollars. In UD. hundred within a number is NUM CD with nummod to the noun; the multiplier is compound: compound(hundred, two). hundreds, thousands, millions, billions, dozens are NOUN NNS Number=Plur, with the singular as lemma. Rules. en.nominal.hundreds-noun (error): hundreds/thousands/millions/billions/dozens are NOUN with Number=Plur. en.nominal.complex-number-compound (warn): a NUM has no NUM nummod dependent (the smaller member is compound). Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XLII §1–2; Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXV §28 (a hundred people); UD en dep/compound (numbers: four thousand).

indefinite-compounds

someone, anything, nobody, everything: compound indefinite pronouns

Gist. Pronouns built from some-, any-, no-, every- + -one, -body, -thing are noun-like singular words. An adjective modifying them comes after: something new, anyone else, nothing special, everything English. Conditions and exceptions. The first part sets the type: some-/any- indefinite, every- total, no- negative. No one is written separately (in UD no is DET, one PRON). The verb is singular (Everyone is here), while the referring pronoun is often they. Poutsma explains -body, -thing as "prop-words" of indefinite pronouns. Examples. something new; anybody else; Nobody knows.; everything you need. In UD. PRON, XPOS NN, Number=Sing + PronType=Ind (some-, any-), Tot (every-), Neg (no-). A modifier is amod to the right. Rules. en.nominal.every-compound-tot (error): everyone/everybody/everything → PRON NN, Sing, Tot. en.nominal.some-any-compound-ind (error): someone/somebody/something/anyone/anybody/anything → PRON NN, Sing, Ind. en.nominal.no-compound-neg (error): nobody/nothing → PRON NN, Sing, Neg. en.nominal.adj-after-indef-pronoun (warn): an amod of a PRON NN follows it. Sources. Curme 1931 §10 I 1 (a single adjective after an indefinite pronoun), §8 1 e; Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XLIII §27–28, §35–36 (body, thing as prop-words); UD en dep/amod (Anything else).

mass-nouns

Uncountable nouns: information, advice, furniture

Gist. Material and abstract nouns (Poutsma: "material and abstract nouns") are conceived without boundaries, so they have no plural and take no indefinite article. For some this is strict: information, advice, furniture, equipment, luggage, baggage, homework, feedback. A portion is named with a piece of: a piece of advice. Conditions and exceptions. Many mass nouns become countable in another sense — kinds or portions: wines, teas, a coffee, a knowledge of Latin, literary researches. For the words listed above there is no such standard use; informations, advices, an equipment are typical non-native errors. Examples. ✓ some advice; ✓ a piece of furniture; ✗ an information; ✗ furnitures. In UD. NOUN NN with Number=Sing; a det a/an with them is suspicious. Rules. en.nominal.mass-no-a (warn): information, advice, furniture, equipment, luggage, baggage, homework, feedback have no det a. en.nominal.mass-no-plural (warn): these and knowledge, evidence, software, hardware are Number=Sing and do not end in -s (informations is an error in the text). Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXV §22–24; Curme 1931, Ch. XXVI "Plural of Names of Materials", "Plural of Abstract Nouns"; ACL Anthology P17-1074 (NOUN:INFL, informations → information).

news-singular

News and names of sciences: form in -s, but singular number

Gist. Some nouns end in -s but are grammatically singular: news, names of sciences in -ics as disciplines (mathematics, physics, linguistics), diseases (measles) and games (billiards). The verb is singular: The news is good. Conditions and exceptions. Politics, economics can also be plural (His politics are dubious); in EWT they are NNS with Number=Ptan. News is always singular (no a news; one says a piece of news). Examples. No news is good news.; Mathematics is hard.; Measles is contagious. In UD. news is NOUN NN Number=Sing. Names of sciences are NN Sing or NNS Ptan, depending on use. Rules. en.nominal.news-sing (error): news is NN with Number=Sing. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXVI §12–13 (plural nouns construed as singulars); Curme 1931, Ch. XXVI "Plural Used as Singular".

nmod-desc

Title or description with a name: nmod:desc; with an article — appos

Gist. A "bare" description before a name — a position, title or role without an article (President Obama, spokesman John Smith, actor Martin Sheen) — is a descriptor. A description with an article, possessive or numeral (my friend Nick, the poet Burns) is a full apposition. Poutsma describes the similar type the planet Mars, the man Moses, where the first word alone does not give the full meaning. Conditions and exceptions. A descriptor can be dropped without harming the grammar. Suffixes Jr., Inc., LLC, Corp. after a name are descriptors as well (to the right). Examples. Dr. Smith → nmod:desc(Smith, Dr.); my friend Nick → appos(friend, Nick); Apple Inc. → nmod:desc(Apple, Inc.). In UD. nmod:desc has no det, nmod:poss or nummod; its head is a PROPN. A description with a determiner before the name is appos from the description to the name. Rules. en.nominal.desc-bare (error): an nmod:desc has no det, nmod:poss or nummod. en.nominal.desc-head-propn (warn): the head of nmod:desc is PROPN. Sources. UD en dep/nmod-desc; Poutsma GLME I, Ch. IV §6 b; Curme 1931 §10 III "Close apposition".

nmod-poss

The possessor stands before the noun and is marked with 's

Gist. A possessive modifier (John's, my, the company's) precedes what is possessed. After the noun, possession is expressed with of: the office of the president. Curme: the s-genitive prevails with living beings, of with inanimates. Conditions and exceptions. A possessor noun without 's signals a missing apostrophe in the text (the players wives). The double genitive a friend of John's follows the noun but is nmod with of (separate seed). Pronouns my, your, his are nmod:poss without a clitic. Examples. ✓ Marie's book — nmod:poss(book, Marie); ✓ my book; ✓ the office of the president — nmod(office, president). In UD. nmod:poss is always to the left of its head. A NOUN/PROPN/NUM in nmod:poss has a POS child. Rules. en.nominal.poss-before-head (error): nmod:poss precedes its head. en.nominal.poss-noun-needs-s (warn): a nominal nmod:poss has a POS ('s / ') dependent. Sources. UD en dep/nmod-poss, dep/nmod; Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXIV §7–11; Curme 1931 §10 II 1.

no-none

no is a determiner, none is a pronoun

Gist. No stands only before a noun (no money, no friends): it is a negative determiner and cannot be used alone. Its independent counterpart is none (None of them came), for persons nobody/no one. Poutsma: none is the "absolute form of no", as mine is of my. Conditions and exceptions. No can also be an adverb before a comparative (no better, no longer) and an interjection (No, thanks). After none the verb can be singular or plural. Examples. ✓ no idea; ✓ none of us; ✗ no of us; ✓ no longer (adverb). In UD. no before a noun: DET DT PronType=Neg, relation det; adverb: ADV RB advmod; interjection: INTJ UH Polarity=Neg. None: PRON NN PronType=Neg. Rules. en.nominal.no-det (error): DET no is det with PronType=Neg. en.nominal.none-pron (warn): none is PRON with PronType=Neg. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XL §114–115 (no), §135–137 (none); UD en feat/Polarity, feat/PronType.

noun-number-xpos

Noun number: tags NN/NNS/NNP/NNPS and the Number feature

Gist. The number of an English noun is visible in its form: singular is tagged NN (proper NNP), plural NNS (NNPS). The Number feature must agree with the tag. Conditions and exceptions. Pluralia tantum (trousers, goods, clothes) are NNS with Number=Ptan. Invariable sheep, fish, species, aircraft get their number from context. Number follows the form, not the meaning: family, police meaning a group of people keep the number of their form. Examples. book NN Sing; books NNS Plur; the Alps NNPS Plur; clothes NNS Ptan. In UD. NOUN/PROPN with Number=Sing|Plur|Ptan. Rules. en.nominal.nn-sing (error): NN/NNP → Number=Sing. en.nominal.nns-plur (error): NNS/NNPS → Number=Plur or Ptan. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXV §1–14 (plural formation); Santorini 1990 (NN, NNS, NNP, NNPS); UD en feat/Number.

np-order

Order of modifiers before the noun

Gist. Modifiers before a noun come in a fixed order: predeterminer (all, both) → determiner or possessive (the, these, my) → numeral (two, three) → adjectives → noun modifier → head: all my three old college friends. Poutsma: article, pronoun and numeral precede adjectives and noun modifiers; numerals precede adjectives (two great men). Conditions and exceptions. First, last, next and words of similar meaning (other, only, same, past, top, final, additional, further, full, whole) come before the cardinal: the first three days, the last two years, the other two, an additional 20 minutes; Poutsma also allows the three first months. An adjective with so/as/too/how precedes the article (so big a house, separate seed). A classifying genitive allows an adjective before it (a new children's book). Examples. ✓ the two old men; ✓ the next five years; ✗ great two men; ✗ two the men. In UD. For one noun: det:predet < det/nmod:poss < nummod < amod < compound < head. Rules. en.nominal.det-before-nummod (error): a det precedes a prenominal nummod of the same noun. en.nominal.det-before-compound (warn): a det precedes a compound of the same noun. en.nominal.adj-before-numeral (warn): only first/last/next and similar listed adjectives may precede a prenominal nummod. Sources. Poutsma GLME I, Ch. VIII §150, §156–157; Curme 1931 §10 I 1.

numeral-noun-number

Numeral and noun number: one book, two books

Gist. After one (1) the noun is singular; after two and higher numbers it is plural: one book, two books, forty dollars. Conditions and exceptions. A measure used as a modifier stays singular: a two-hour delay, a 5 year old. Percent/per cent is invariable: 80 percent. Abbreviated units (5 lb., 8 GB) have no number. Dozen, hundred, thousand after a numeral take no -s: two dozen eggs. In one or two days the noun agrees with the nearer two. Examples. ✓ one day; ✓ three days; ✓ a three-day trip; ✓ 20 percent; ✗ two day. In UD. nummod (NUM) → head NOUN with Number. A measure in a modifier position (2 year old) is obl:unmarked. Rules. en.nominal.one-singular (warn): a noun with nummod one/1 is Number=Sing. en.nominal.numeral-plural (warn): a noun with nummod two…ten, twelve, twenty, dozen, hundred, thousand in a subject, object, oblique, nominal-modifier, root or conjunct role (and not an abbreviation) is Plur or Ptan. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XLII §1–3; Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXV §28, §31.

nummod

Cardinal numeral on a noun: nummod on NUM, before the noun

Gist. A numeral that counts things (three books, forty dollars) is a distinct kind of modifier. It precedes the noun, together with other determiner-like words (Poutsma: numerals precede adjectives). Conditions and exceptions. After a currency sign the number is on the right: $ 40 — nummod($, 40). A number used as an identifier after a noun is not a quantity: page 394, Route 66, World War II — flat. Dates and addresses (October 8, 1963) are nmod:unmarked. Ordinals (first, third) are ADJ with amod. In a complex number the smaller member is compound of the larger (see the hundred seed). Examples. ✓ three books — nummod(books, three); ✓ room 101 — flat(room, 101); ✗ nummod(page, 394). In UD. nummod → NUM, to the left of a NOUN/PROPN (to the right only with the SYM $). NUM as amod is suspicious. Rules. en.nominal.nummod-num (error): a nummod dependent is NUM. en.nominal.nummod-before-noun (error): a nummod of a NOUN/PROPN precedes it. en.nominal.num-not-amod (warn): a NUM is never amod. Sources. UD en dep/nummod, dep/nmod-desc (numbered entities), dep/nmod-unmarked (dates); Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XLII §3, §7, §11–12; Poutsma GLME I, Ch. VIII §156; ACL Anthology 2023.udw-1.7.

ordinals

Ordinal numerals are adjectives

Gist. First, second, third, 21st name a position in a sequence, not a quantity. Syntactically they behave like adjectives: they follow the article (the second day) and can be intensified (the very first). Conditions and exceptions. First can be an adverb (First, we… — ADV RB). Second as a noun means a unit of time. Ordinals and last, next can precede a cardinal: the first three chapters (more usual) and the three first. Examples. the second day; his 21st birthday; the first three weeks. In UD. ADJ, XPOS JJ, Degree=Pos|NumForm=Word|NumType=Ord (digit forms: NumForm=Combi, 2nd), relation amod, not nummod. Rules. en.nominal.ordinal-not-nummod (error): a word with NumType=Ord is not nummod. en.nominal.ordinal-adj-feats (warn): ADJ first…tenth have NumType=Ord. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XLII §11–13; Poutsma GLME I, Ch. VIII §157; UD en feat/NumType.

own

own — only after a possessive

Gist. The adjective own reinforces possession and stands only after a possessive pronoun or genitive: my own house, John's own idea, a room of one's own. Without a possessive own is not used (✗ an own house, a calque of German ein eigenes Haus). Conditions and exceptions. The fixed sports term own goal is a compound noun. In on my own, of their own, a room of one's own, own stands without a noun (Poutsma: a partially converted adjective), but it still has a possessive. Examples. ✓ her own car; ✓ their very own; ✓ on my own; ✗ an own car. In UD. own is ADJ JJ amod; its head has an nmod:poss. Without a noun (on my own), own is an ADJ head (obl, nmod) with its own nmod:poss. Rules. en.nominal.own-needs-possessor (warn): a noun with amod own has an nmod:poss. en.nominal.own-alone-needs-possessor (warn): own as obl/nmod/obj/nsubj has its own nmod:poss. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXIV §38–39 and Ch. XXIX §28; Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIII §18–20.

pluralia-tantum

Pluralia tantum: plural-only nouns

Gist. Some nouns exist only in the plural. These are things made of two identical halves (trousers, jeans, pants, scissors, pliers, glasses "spectacles") and collective or abstract names (clothes, goods, thanks, contents, surroundings, whereabouts, headquarters, premises, outskirts, belongings, proceedings). In this sense they have no singular. Conditions and exceptions. Paired items are counted with pair: a pair of scissors. Some have a singular with a different meaning: glass "material" — glasses "spectacles"; content — contents; good — goods. Headquarters, means, whereabouts can also take a singular verb. Examples. These trousers are new.; Thanks a lot.; The goods were shipped. In UD. NOUN NNS with Number=Ptan (the UD 2.18 English registry allows Ptan for NOUN and PROPN). The lemma is the plural form itself: clothes, goods. Decades (1970s) are also Ptan. Rules. en.nominal.ptan-lemmas (warn): NNS nouns with lemma trousers, jeans, pants, scissors, pliers, tongs, clothes, goods, outskirts, premises, whereabouts, headquarters, surroundings, belongings, proceedings have Number=Ptan. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXV §18–21; Curme 1931, Ch. XXVI "Nouns without a Singular"; UD 2.18 English feature registry (NOUN Number=Ptan).

poss-clitic

Possessive 's is a separate function token

Gist. The possessive (genitive) of an English noun is formed with the clitic 's (John's, men's) or with a bare apostrophe for plurals in -s (the boys') and old names in -s (Jesus', Socrates'). In modern English only this "s-genitive" and the of-construction are alive (Curme). Conditions and exceptions. It's = it is, not a possessive; its is a pronoun without an apostrophe. Names in a sibilant: Jones's and Jones' — spelling varies. The old "his-genitive" John his book (Curme) is now substandard. Examples. the boy's hat; the boys' hats; children's shoes; Mrs. Adams's wrapper (Curme). In UD. 's or ' is a separate token: PART, XPOS POS, lemma 's, relation case to the head of the possessor group, to its right. The possessor is nmod:poss of the possessed noun. Rules. en.nominal.pos-clitic (error): a POS token is PART with lemma 's, relation case, after its possessor. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXIV §1–2; Curme 1931 §10 II 1; UD en dep/nmod-poss; Santorini 1990 (POS).

poss-pronouns

Possessive pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Gist. The dependent ("conjoint", Poutsma) possessive pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our, their are the genitive of the personal pronouns. They stand only before a noun and do not combine with an article (a friend of mine, not a my friend). Conditions and exceptions. His is both dependent and independent (The car is his). Her is ambiguous: possessive (her book, PRP$) and object (I saw her, PRP). Its ≠ it's. A possessive before a gerund is its subject (I object to his coming). Examples. my book; their house; I object to his coming. In UD. PRON, XPOS PRP$, Case=Gen|Poss=Yes|PronType=Prs + Person/Number/Gender; relation nmod:poss, with a gerund nsubj. The lemma is the form itself (my, your, his, her, its, our, their). Rules. en.nominal.prp-poss-feats (error): PRP$ is PRON with Case=Gen, Poss=Yes, PronType=Prs. en.nominal.prp-poss-rel (warn): PRP$ and WP$ are nmod:poss (or nsubj/nsubj:pass of a gerund, or conj); det:poss is not used in English. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIII §1–2, §7 and Ch. XXXII §2; UD en feat/Poss, dep/nmod-poss.

predeterminers

Predeterminers: all the, both my, half an, such a, what a

Gist. A few words stand before an article or possessive pronoun: all, both, half before the/my/these; such, what, quite, rather, many before the indefinite article. Conditions and exceptions. Without a central determiner, all, both are ordinary det (all people, both sides). Such without an article is an adjective (such people: ADJ amod). Many a + singular is a literary distributive (many a man). Half can also be a noun (the first half). Poutsma: after all/both the definite article is often dropped (all day, both hands). Examples. all the time; both my parents; half an hour; such a pity; what a mess; quite a few. In UD. Relation det:predet, UPOS DET, XPOS PDT (all, both, half, such, quite, many) or WDT (what). det:predet precedes the det/nmod:poss of the same noun and nearly always co-occurs with it (exceptions such as all those, where the head is the pronoun itself). Rules. en.nominal.predet-before-det (error): det:predet precedes the central det/nmod:poss. en.nominal.predet-needs-det (warn): a noun with det:predet also has a det or nmod:poss. en.nominal.predet-xpos (error): det:predet is DET with XPOS PDT or WDT. Sources. Poutsma GLME I, Ch. VIII §155–156; Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXXI §18; Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XL §88 (many a); UD en dep/det-predet; Santorini 1990 (PDT).

predicative-not-amod

A predicative adjective is not amod

Gist. An adjective is attributive — with a noun, without a verb (a sick man) — or predicative — through a copula (The man is sick) or as a predicative complement (I found him sick). Poutsma treats these as the main functions of the adjective. Conditions and exceptions. In UD a predicative adjective with be becomes the head of the clause: subject and copula depend on it. With find, make, consider it is xcomp. Hence an adjective with a cop or a subject cannot be amod. Examples. The house is old. → nsubj(old, house), cop(old, is); an old house → amod(house, old). In UD. amod has no cop or nsubj children. Rules. en.nominal.amod-no-cop (error): an amod has no cop and no nsubj* dependent. Sources. Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXVIII §6; UD en dep/amod; UD u cop.

pron-case-function

Case of the personal pronoun and its role in the sentence

Gist. The nominative (I, he, she, we, they) is for the subject of a finite verb. The objective (me, him, her, us, them) is for objects, after prepositions, for the subject of a for-infinitive and in "detached" positions not tied to a finite verb: It's me, Me too, taller than me. Conditions and exceptions. Colloquial speech often uses the objective for the nominative when the pronoun is not directly next to a finite verb; Me and him went is substandard. The opposite slip is hypercorrection: between you and I. UD annotation records the form (case = form), so in such sentences the annotation is correct; the rule only prompts checking the relation. Examples. ✓ She saw me.; ✓ for him to go; ~ Me and her went (substandard); ~ between you and I (hypercorrection). In UD. A Case=Nom pronoun as obj, iobj, obl, nmod is suspicious; a Case=Acc pronoun as subject of a finite verb is substandard text (but correct for subjects of infinitives and participles). Rules. en.nominal.nom-not-object (warn): a Case=Nom PRON is not obj, iobj, obl* or nmod*. en.nominal.finite-subject-nom (warn): a PRP/WP with Case that is subject of a finite verb is Case=Nom. See also en.errors.finite-subject-nominative-auxcop in The pronoun subject of a finite verb is nominative. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXII §4–12; Curme 1931 §8 IV "Case"; UD en feat/Case; ACL Anthology P17-1074 (PRON).

pron-paradigm

Personal pronouns: person, number, gender, case

Gist. Personal pronouns are the only English words with a full case paradigm: nominative (I, he, she, we, they), objective (me, him, her, us, them), possessive (my, his…). In you and it nominative and objective have merged. Gender is distinguished only in the 3rd person singular: he masculine, she feminine, it neuter. Conditions and exceptions. They is plural in form even when it refers to one person ("singular they"): UD keeps Number=Plur. You has no number (singular and plural merged), while yourself/yourselves do. Thou, thee, thy are archaic (Style=Arch). The 's in let's is us (lemma we, Case=Acc). Examples. I saw him.; She met us.; They know it. In UD. PRON, XPOS PRP (possessives PRP$); PronType=Prs, Person, Number (except you), Gender (3rd person singular only), Case=Nom|Acc|Gen. The lemma is the nominative: me → I, him → he, us → we, them → they. Rules. en.nominal.pron-nom-forms (error): I, he, she, we, they → PRP, Case=Nom, Prs. en.nominal.pron-acc-forms (error): me, him, us, them → PRP, Case=Acc, Prs. en.nominal.pron-masc / en.nominal.pron-fem / en.nominal.pron-neut (error): he/him/his/himself, she/her/hers/herself, it/its/itself → 3rd person singular with the matching Gender. en.nominal.pron-plur (error): we/us/our/ours/ourselves, they/them/their/theirs/themselves → Number=Plur. en.nominal.pron-first-sing (error): I/me/my/mine/myself → Person=1, Number=Sing. en.nominal.you-no-number (error): you/your/yours → Person=2, no Number. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXII §1–2, §10, §20 and Ch. XXXV §11 (you replacing thou); Curme 1931 §3 (only pronouns have a distinct nominative); UD en feat/Case, feat/Person, feat/Gender, feat/Number.

prop-word-one

The prop-word one: the big one, the red ones

Gist. To let an adjective or determiner stand without a noun, English adds one/ones: the red one, a big one, these ones, the ones I like. This is not the numeral "one" but a substitute for a count noun (Poutsma: "prop-word"). Conditions and exceptions. Only for count nouns: of milk one says the white, not the white one. After a possessive it is usually not used (my one is colloquial). Curme regards one here rather as a suffix that nominalizes the adjective; for annotation it is a noun. Examples. I want the blue one.; Which ones?; the one on the left. In UD. NOUN (NN one, NNS ones), Number=Sing|Plur; it takes det/amod and the role of the whole phrase. The numeral one (NUM) has no det/amod; ones is always NOUN. Rules. en.nominal.num-one-no-det (warn): NUM one has no det* or amod dependent. en.nominal.ones-noun (error): ones is NOUN with Number=Plur. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XLIII §1–3; Curme 1931 §57 1 "Use of the Suffix One".

quantity-adj-number

many, several, few, both — with plural; much — with singular

Gist. Many, several, few, both count separate items, so the noun is plural: many people, few chances, both hands. Much (and little meaning "not much") measures mass, so it goes with a singular mass noun: much time, little money. Conditions and exceptions. Many a man is the literary distributive many a with a singular (det:predet; see predeterminers). Little meaning "small" is an ordinary adjective: little kids. Colloquial much more people occurs, but it is a deviation. Examples. ✓ many people; ✓ several times; ✓ much time; ✗ much books; ✓ many a day (literary). In UD. many, several, few, much, little are ADJ JJ with amod (not DET); both is DET with det. Rules. en.nominal.count-quantifier-plural (warn): a noun with amod/det many, several, few, both is Plur or Ptan. en.nominal.much-singular (warn): a noun with amod much is Sing. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XL §26–30 (both), §57–62 (few), §64–68 (little), §85–90 (many, many a), §91–93 (much); Poutsma GLME III, Ch. XXV §22.

reciprocal

Reciprocal pronouns each other, one another

Gist. Each other and one another express a mutual action among several participants: They love each other. The combination is inseparable and behaves as a single object pronoun. Conditions and exceptions. A plural subject or several subjects are required. The genitive is each other's (each other's houses). Historically each was the subject and other the object (They each loved the other), but now both words stand together and act as one. Examples. We help each other.; They looked at one another.; each other's names. In UD. The first word is the head with ExtPos=PRON|PronType=Rcp (each DET DT, one PRON CD); the second (other ADJ JJ, another DET) is fixed. The whole unit takes the relation of its role (obj, obl, nmod:poss). Rules. en.nominal.reciprocal-fixed (error): in each other / one another with fixed, the first word has PronType=Rcp and ExtPos=PRON. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XL §37–39; UD en feat/PronType (Rcp), feat/ExtPos; UD u fixed.

reduced-relatives

Reduced relative clauses: participle and infinitive on a noun

Gist. A relative clause is often reduced to a participle or infinitive (Curme: "abridgment"): the man [who is] sitting there, a book [that was] written in 1900, a chance to win, a bagel to eat. A participle with dependents follows the noun; a single participle usually precedes it, like an adjective (a sleeping child). Conditions and exceptions. Curme: a participle with noticeable verbal force follows the noun (a man shot); as a property it precedes (an unheard-of crime). UD distinguishes infinitives: with a gap corresponding to the noun (a bagel to eat) — acl:relcl; without such a gap (a way to get my discount) — acl. Examples. sites offering booking → acl(sites, offering); a parakeet named Cookie → acl; a suggestion to make → acl:relcl. In UD. acl with VerbForm=Part|Ger|Inf follows the noun (rare left-hand cases are mostly quoted modifiers such as a bang-your-head-against-the-wall moment). A participle before the noun is amod. Rules. en.nominal.acl-after-head (warn): an acl of a NOUN/PROPN/PRON follows its head. Sources. Curme 1931, Ch. XIV §23 II 11 "Abridgment of Relative Clause", §10 I 1; Poutsma GLME II, participle clauses §2; UD en dep/acl, dep/acl-relcl (infinitival relatives).

reflexive-agreement

The reflexive pronoun agrees with the subject

Gist. A reflexive pronoun repeats the subject of its verb, so it agrees with it in person and number: I hurt myself, They blamed themselves, We enjoyed ourselves. Conditions and exceptions. Agreement is with the subject of the same verb (within one clause). In the imperative the subject you is not expressed (Help yourself!). With singular they — themselves or the rare themself. Pronouns like everyone, someone (PRON NN, not PRP) take themselves or himself/herself. Examples. ✓ We enjoyed ourselves.; ✓ She blamed herself.; ✗ He hurt myself. In UD. A subject PRP and a reflexive obj/iobj of the same verb share person and number. The rule compares features of two nodes (feats.Person=@s), so one rule covers all persons and numbers. Rules. en.nominal.reflexive-agreement (warn): a reflexive obj/iobj/obl has the same Person as the PRP subject of its verb, and the same Number unless the subject has no Number (you) or is they. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIV §3–4.

reflexive

Reflexive and intensive pronouns in -self

Gist. Pronouns in -self/-selves have two roles. Reflexive: an object coreferent with the subject (He hurt himself). Emphatic (intensifying): "himself, in person", attached to a noun or subject (The king himself came, I did it myself). Conditions and exceptions. In writing the roles cannot always be told apart; the criterion is function. The reflexive occupies an object or prepositional-object slot (obj, iobj, obl); the emphatic attaches to a noun or verb without a preposition. Colloquial myself for I/me (John and myself went) is nonstandard. Examples. She blamed herself. (reflexive); Einstein himself was there. (emphatic); Do it yourself. (emphatic). In UD. PRON PRP, Case=Acc|Reflex=Yes + Person/Number/Gender. Reflexive: PronType=Prs; emphatic: PronType=Emp, relation nmod:unmarked (with a noun) or obl:unmarked (with a verb). Yourself is Number=Sing, yourselves Plur. Rules. en.nominal.self-reflex (error): PRON in -self → Reflex=Yes, Case=Acc, Sing. en.nominal.selves-reflex (error): PRON in -selves → Reflex=Yes, Case=Acc, Plur. en.nominal.emphatic-self-rel (warn): a PronType=Emp reflexive is nmod:unmarked, obl:unmarked or appos. en.nominal.unmarked-self-emp (error): a reflexive in nmod:unmarked/obl:unmarked is PronType=Emp. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIV §1–4, §29–31; Curme 1931 §56 D "Intensifying myself, himself"; UD en dep/nmod-unmarked (iv), feat/Reflex, feat/PronType.

relative-that

Relative that is a pronoun; no preposition precedes it

Gist. That in a relative clause (the book that I read) is a relative pronoun, like which/who: it fills the subject or object slot of the clause. Unlike who/which, it cannot be preceded by a preposition: the house in which I live, or the house that I live in (stranded preposition), but not in that I live. Conditions and exceptions. That is always clause-initial, so it is impossible where the relative word must be preceded by a preposition, all/both or a participle (Poutsma). That introduces mainly restrictive clauses; in non-restrictive ones (with a comma) who/which are used, and old that there is archaic. CGEL treats that as a subordinator, UD as a pronoun. Examples. ✓ the man that I met; ✓ the house that Jack built; ✓ the tool that I work with; ✗ the tool with that I work. In UD. PRON, XPOS WDT, PronType=Rel; its relation is its role in the clause (nsubj, obj, nsubj:pass, obl with a stranded preposition…), not mark. A preposition (case) of relative that is only to its right. Rules. en.nominal.relative-that-not-mark (error): that before the head of an acl:relcl is PRON and not mark. en.nominal.relative-that-no-preposition (error): a case dependent of relative that follows it. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIX §12, §16–17, §34; Poutsma GLME I, preface (that as a relative pronoun); UD en dep/acl-relcl (relativizers), dep/mark; CGELBank (that as subordinator); ACL Anthology 2023.udw-1.7.

relcl-after-head

A relative modifier stands after the noun

Gist. A relative clause (the man who came, the book I read) follows the noun it modifies and contains a gap corresponding to that noun: the book [that I read ___]. Poutsma divides such clauses into restrictive (no comma, they select the referent) and non-restrictive (with a comma, they add a fact); Curme into "restrictive" and "descriptive". Conditions and exceptions. The head is usually a noun or pronoun (those who, something that, all that), sometimes an adjective used as a noun (the best that…). A clause referring to a whole sentence (…, which was a bad idea) is advcl:relcl, not acl:relcl. Examples. the book that I read; people who care; everything you said. In UD. The clause head is acl:relcl of the noun, always to its right. The relative pronoun takes its role in the clause (nsubj, obj, obl…). The head is NOUN, PRON, PROPN, rarely DET, ADJ, NUM, SYM. Rules. en.nominal.relcl-after-head (error): an acl:relcl follows its head. en.nominal.relcl-head-nominal (warn): the head of acl:relcl is NOUN, PROPN, PRON, NUM, DET, ADJ or SYM. Sources. Poutsma GLME II, Ch. XVI §1; Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIX §6; Curme 1931, Ch. XIV §23 II 6 "Descriptive and Restrictive"; UD en dep/acl-relcl.

relcl-subject

A relative clause has a subject — its own or the relative pronoun

Gist. A relative pronoun can be omitted (Curme: "asyndetic relative clause") when it is an object (the man [whom] I saw), the object of a stranded preposition (the house [that] I live in) or a predicate (the man [that] he is). When it is the subject, omission is impossible in standard English: the man who came, not the man came. Conditions and exceptions. In colloquial and dialect speech a subject pronoun drops after there is / here is (There's a man wants to see you). In a clause with there, there takes over the subject role (the problems there are). Hence a finite relative clause on a noun has an nsubj (relative pronoun or its own subject) or an expl there. Examples. ✓ the book I read (nsubj = I); ✓ the man who came (nsubj = who); ~ There's a man wants you (colloquial). In UD. A finite acl:relcl on a NOUN/PROPN without nsubj/expl signals a broken text or annotation. Rules. en.nominal.finite-relcl-subject (warn): a finite acl:relcl of a NOUN/PROPN has a dependent nsubj, nsubj:pass, nsubj:outer, csubj, csubj:pass or expl. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIX §27–29; Curme 1931, Ch. XIV §23 II 10 "Asyndetic Relative Construction"; UD en dep/acl-relcl (reduced relative clauses).

single-det

One central determiner per noun

Gist. A noun has at most one central determiner: an article, demonstrative, possessive or quantifier. The my book, a this car are impossible. To combine an article with possession one says a friend of mine, this idea of yours. Conditions and exceptions. Predeterminers all, both, half, such, what, quite precede the central determiner (all the, both my, such a); this is a separate relation det:predet, not a second det. Many, few, other, same after a determiner are adjectives (the many, a few, the other). Archaic these my children (Poutsma) is a rare literary exception. Examples. ✓ my old car; ✓ all my friends; ✓ a friend of mine; ✗ the my car; ✗ a his friend. In UD. A noun has at most one det child and never both a det and a pronominal nmod:poss. Rules. en.nominal.single-det (warn): a noun has at most one det. en.nominal.det-with-poss-pron (warn): a noun with a pronominal nmod:poss has no det. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIII §11, §23; Poutsma GLME I, Ch. VIII §155–156; Curme 1931 §10 II 1 b (double genitive).

there-expletive

Existential there is a subject pronoun without locative meaning

Gist. In existential sentences (There is a cat on the roof) there is a formal subject without the meaning "in that place"; the real subject (a cat) follows the verb. Poutsma: unstressed there "takes over the subject role to the ear". Conditions and exceptions. It differs from the locative adverb there by being unstressed and not answering "where?". Both can occur in one sentence: There's a dog there. Examples. There are three options.; There seems to be a problem. In UD. Existential: PRON, XPOS EX, PronType=Dem, relation expl; the noun subject is nsubj. Locative there is ADV RB advmod. Rules. en.nominal.ex-there (error): an EX token is PRON with PronType=Dem and relation expl. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIX §28 d; UD en dep/expl; Santorini 1990 (EX).

who-whom-whose

who, whom, whose, which: case and person

Gist. A relative pronoun takes its case from its role in the clause (Curme): who — subject, whom — object or prepositional object, whose — possessive. Who/whom are for persons, which for things, that for both (Poutsma). Conditions and exceptions. In speech who for whom is normal (the man who I saw, Curme). Whom as a subject (the man whom I think is guilty) is hypercorrection. Whose is also used for things (a house whose roof leaks). Examples. the boy whom I trusted; the boy whose knife was lost; the boy to whom I gave it. In UD. who, whom: PRON WP, PronType=Rel (in questions Int); whose: PRON WP$, Poss=Yes, relation nmod:poss; which: PRON WDT or DET (which book). Rules. en.nominal.whom-not-subject (warn): whom is not nsubj*. en.nominal.whose-poss (warn): PRON whose is WP$ with Poss=Yes and relation nmod:poss. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXIX §4, §9–12; Curme 1931, Ch. XIV §23 II 7–8 "Personality and Form", "Case of Relative".

you-it-case

you and it: case is visible only from the role in the sentence

Gist. You and it have one form for nominative and objective, so case is determined by function: the subject of a finite verb is nominative; objects and prepositional objects are objective. Conditions and exceptions. The subject of an infinitive after for (for you to decide) and the subject of a gerund are objective. Formal it (expl) as subject is nominative, as object (I find it hard to…) objective. Examples. You (Nom) saw it (Acc). It (Nom) hit you (Acc). It is time for you (Acc) to go. In UD. EWT assigns Case to you/it by function: subject of a finite verb Case=Nom; obj, iobj, obl, nmod Case=Acc. A mismatch here is an annotation error, not a text error. Rules. en.nominal.you-it-nom (error): you/it as subject of a finite verb → Case=Nom. en.nominal.you-it-acc (error): you/it as obj, iobj, obl, obl:unmarked, obl:agent, nmod, nmod:unmarked → Case=Acc. Sources. Poutsma GLME IV, Ch. XXXII §4, §8, §10; Curme 1931 §3; UD en feat/Case.

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