English grammar seeds: verbs and clauses (`en/seeds/verbal`)

A seed is a short Markdown note holding one piece of knowledge about English grammar, together with its source (a page of a reference grammar or a paper). The name follows the image of a fruit stone: the seed is the kernel from which a rule grows. Each seed has the same sections:

Gist — what the grammar says, in 1–3 sentences;
Conditions and exceptions — when the statement holds and when it does not;
Examples — short English sentences (an asterisk * marks an ungrammatical one);
In UD — how the phenomenon looks in Universal Dependencies 2.18 annotation (English Web Treebank conventions): UPOS, XPOS (Penn Treebank tags), FEATS, relations;
Sources — the grammars, UD guidelines and papers the seed is based on;
optionally, one or more machine-readable ```rule blocks.

The seed tree is split into sections: morph (inflection and word formation), nominal (the noun phrase), verbal (the verb and the clause — this folder), lexicon (valency) and errors (typical errors of parsers, language models and learners).

How a seed becomes a rule

A ```rule block is written in a small declarative language and executed by the deterministic Rust rule engine en::expert:

rule: en.verbal.cop-be-only
what: the copula (cop) is only "be", with UPOS AUX
match: c[rel=cop]
require: c[lemma=be, upos=AUX]
severity: error
source: UD docs/_en/dep/cop.md

match — one or more nodes, name[condition, …]; the engine tries every binding of the nodes to distinct words of a sentence. Conditions test upos, xpos, lemma, form, feats.X=V, rel (rel~nsubj matches the base relation with any subtype), head, word order (before, after, next, prev) and suffixes/prefixes; any condition can be negated (!=), and feats.X=@s compares a feature with another node.
require — clauses that must all hold for every binding (; = and, or = alternatives). Clause forms: node[…], not node[…], exists x[…] (some other word exists), none x[…] (no such word).
unless — exceptions: if any clause holds, the violation is dropped.
severity — error (the annotation is certainly wrong) or warn (a suspicion worth checking).
source — where the knowledge comes from (mandatory).

The engine loads the seed folders, parses every block into typed Rust structures (relations, tags and features are enums, not strings) and reports a parse error rather than silently ignoring a malformed rule; a test checks that every seed parses and that rule ids are unique. The CLI command en expert-check <seeds> [--gold <gold>] <file.conllu> checks a CoNLL-U file and prints up to three examples per rule (with EN_EXPERT_LIST=1, the full list of violations).

Typical uses: validating annotation produced by a parser, a language model or a silver pipeline; giving a correction pass hints such as "word 5 violates rule X"; and acting as hard constraints when parsing. The rules are precise but only see ungrammatical structure, so they are a check, not a complete parser.

Seeds without a rule block are still useful: they document a construction and the UD analysis expected for it. Relative paths in "see also" notes (nominal/…, errors/…, lexicon/…) point to sibling sections of the seed tree.

absolute-construction

Absolute construction and independent participles

Gist. An absolute construction is a noun or pronoun with a participle that is grammatically unconnected to the rest of the sentence; it has its own "subject" and works as an adverbial (cause, time). Independent participial or infinitival phrases (generally speaking, to confess the truth) likewise have no link to the sentence subject. Conditions and exceptions. The construction is often introduced by with/without (With the kids in school, I have free time) and may lack a verb altogether (most of them women and children). Brown required the nominative inside it (he being absent, not him). A dangling participle whose understood subject is not the sentence subject (Walking home, the rain started) is a stylistic flaw but receives the same analysis (advcl). In UD. The head of the construction (participle, adjective or noun) is advcl of the main predicate; its "subject" is nsubj/nsubj:pass of that head; with is mark. A passive participle in the construction takes nsubj:pass without aux:pass. Examples. His master being absent, the business was neglected. — With some used as building material and others as urinals. — The attack killed 600 Iraqis, most of them women and children. Sources. Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons in English (1877), Lesson 44; Brown 1851, Rule VIII (nominative absolute) and Rule XX (participles); UD docs/_en/dep/advcl.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (nonverbal predicates without a copula: absolutes). Rules. None (descriptive seed).

agreement-clausal-subject

A clausal subject requires the singular

Gist. When the subject is a whole clause or an infinitival or gerund phrase, the verb is third person singular: To lie is base, That she lied was suspected, Taking a nap relaxes you. Conditions and exceptions. Several clausal subjects joined by and take the plural; joined by or, the singular. In UD. A head with csubj/csubj:pass (with no coordinated conjuncts) is not VBP and has no VBP among its cop/aux dependents. Examples. Whether he lied is beside the point. — What he says is true. — *To err are human. Sources. Brown 1851, Rule XIV Note III, Rule XVI Note VII, Rule XVII Note IV; UD docs/_en/dep/csubj.md. Rules. en.verbal.csubj-not-vbp, en.verbal.csubj-not-vbp-aux (warn): a VBP predicate, copula or auxiliary with a clausal subject is suspicious unless the subject is coordinated.

agreement-compound-subject

Coordinated subjects: and — plural, or/nor — by the nearest

Gist. Subjects joined by and take a plural verb (John and Mary are here); subjects joined by or/nor agree with the nearest one (Neither you nor I am concerned, Either the boys or the teacher is coming). Conditions and exceptions. The singular is used with and when the two names denote one whole (Bread and butter is my breakfast) or are preceded by each, every, no. As well as, with, together with, not do not form a compound subject (Veracity, as well as justice, is our rule). Texts often keep the singular in there is a force and beauty, so the rule only warns. In UD. A compound subject is the first conjunct as nsubj, the others conj to it with cc. A VBZ verb whose nsubj has a conj via and is suspicious (except in sentences with expl). Examples. He and I are friends. — Their sense of humour and calmness amazes me (singular despite and — a feature of the text). — The ship, with all her furniture, was destroyed. Sources. Brown 1851, Rule XVI and Notes II–IV, Rule XVII and Note I; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lessons 20 and 142; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Coordination). Rules. en.verbal.vbz-and-subject (warn): VBZ with a subject coordinated by and, unless the verb has an expl.

agreement-indefinite-pronoun

Each, either, neither, everyone… — singular

Gist. Each, either, neither, one, everyone, everybody, someone, anybody, nobody, everything, something, nothing are grammatically singular, even when followed by of + plural: Each of you is entitled to his share, Neither of them was there. Conditions and exceptions. In colloquial speech neither/either of + plural often takes the plural (Are either of you familiar…?), which Brown calls an error. None can be singular or plural; all, some, most agree by meaning. In UD. A subject with one of these lemmas does not occur with VBP (either as the head or via cop/aux). Examples. Each of those ten million has a family. — Nothing changes. — Are either of you familiar with this project? (colloquial, non-agreeing). Sources. Brown 1851, Rule XIV Notes IV and VI; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 142. Rules. en.verbal.indefinite-subject-not-vbp, en.verbal.indefinite-subject-not-vbp-aux (warn): such a subject with a VBP head, copula or auxiliary, unless the subject is coordinated.

agreement-non-third

Agreement: the form without -s — not with he/she/it

Gist. The present form without -s (tag VBP: go, have, are, do) is used with I, you, we, they and plural subjects; third-person singular pronouns (he, she, it, this, that) need the -s form. Am goes only with I. Conditions and exceptions. Coordinated subjects (He and I are) are plural. The subjunctive (that he go) is tagged VB, not VBP, so VBP with he usually means a mis-tagged subjunctive or a genuine error in the text (it sound like). Relative pronouns (who, that) have no person. In UD. A pronoun subject with Person=3|Number=Sing (not coordinated) does not occur with a VBP head, copula or auxiliary. With am, the pronoun subject has Person=1|Number=Sing. Examples. They are here. — I am here. — *He see someone (error in the text). — I insist that he go (VB, subjunctive). Sources. Brown 1851, Rule XIV and Note IV; Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (Persons and Numbers); Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 142; UD docs/_en/feat/Mood.md; Santorini 1990 (Penn Treebank tagging guidelines), VBP. Rules. en.verbal.vbp-3sg-pronoun, en.verbal.vbp-aux-3sg-pronoun (warn): VBP with a he/she/it subject; en.verbal.am-first-person (warn): am only with a first-person singular pronoun subject.

agreement-notional

Notional agreement: collectives, quantity nouns, measures

Gist. Sometimes the verb agrees with the meaning of the subject rather than its form. A collective noun conceived as a plurality of persons takes the plural (The committee were divided, mostly British). Quantity nouns with of (a number of, a lot of, a couple of, a handful of, a majority of) agree with what follows of; conversely, plural-form names, sums and measures take the singular (Ten dollars is enough, The United States is). Conditions and exceptions. The number of X is singular. Because the same form can be used with either number depending on the speaker's view, these cases are exceptions to the agreement rules, not errors. In UD. The head of the subject is a quantity noun (number, lot, couple) with Number=Sing; Number follows the word form, not the meaning. The agreement-* rules therefore give false warnings here; lemmas such as number, lot, couple, majority, handful, bunch, variety, wealth, total, rest, half, percent are candidates for exclusion via lemma!=. Examples. A large number of them are Bangladeshis. — There are a wealth of references (colloquial). — Three hours isn't far. Sources. Brown 1851, Rule XV and Rule XIV Note II; Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar (MEG) II, chapters on number; UD docs/changes.md (Morphosyntactic Features: notional agreement). Rules. None (descriptive seed; see also Collective nouns: singular form, plural meaning).

agreement-third-singular

Agreement: the -s form — only with a singular subject

Gist. A finite verb agrees with its subject in person and number. The third-person singular form (goes, has, is, does; tag VBZ) and was are used only with a singular subject. The verb agrees with the head of the subject, not its dependents: The progress of his forces was impeded. Conditions and exceptions. Plural-form names (The United States is), measures and sums (Three hours isn't far) and names of sciences (Physics is) take the singular. In inversion (From that flows all the tributaries) and colloquial there's + plural, agreement is often broken in the text itself. The rule therefore only warns: it catches either a wrongly attached subject or a textual disagreement. In UD. A nsubj/nsubj:pass with Number=Plur does not occur with a VBZ predicate or with VBZ/was as cop/aux — except in sentences with expl (there's) or an outer subject (nsubj:outer, where is belongs to the outer clause). Examples. The car is red. — The list of items is long (the subject is list, not items). — *The dogs barks (error in the text). Sources. Brown 1851, Rule XIV and Note II; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 142; UD docs/changes.md (Morphosyntactic Features); Santorini 1990, VBZ. Rules. en.verbal.vbz-plural-subject, en.verbal.vbz-aux-plural-subject, en.verbal.was-plural-subject (warn): singular verb, copula, auxiliary or was with a plural noun/pronoun subject; exceptions: expl, an outer subject, or a numeral modifier on the subject (measures and sums).

aux-closed-list

Auxiliary verbs — a closed list

Gist. An auxiliary carries no meaning of its own but adds tense, aspect, voice or modality to the main verb. English auxiliaries form a closed list: be, have, do, passive get, and the modals can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought, need, dare. Any other word in auxiliary position is an annotation error. Conditions and exceptions. Infinitival to is not an auxiliary (it is mark). Let (Let us go) is a full verb with an object, not an "imperative auxiliary". Become, seem, keep are not auxiliaries; they take xcomp. Have to, be going to, used to are separate verbs with an infinitive (see semi-modals). In UD. aux and aux:pass have UPOS AUX and a lemma from the UD 2.18 auxiliary registry; cop is always AUX too (only be, see copula-be-only). Examples. Reagan has died. — Reagan might have been lying. — The book got stolen. — but I tried to finish it (to is mark). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/aux_.md, docs/_en/pos/AUX_.md; UD auxiliary registry; UD 2.18 validator, test rel-upos-aux; Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (definition of auxiliary, Obs. 4) and Rule XIX Obs. 10. Rules. en.verbal.aux-lemma (error): aux/aux:pass lemma from the closed list; en.verbal.aux-upos (error): aux, aux:pass and cop have UPOS AUX.

aux-flat-leaf

Auxiliaries attach flat and have no dependents of their own

Gist. Several auxiliaries in one predicate (might have been lying) do not form a chain; each attaches directly to the main verb. An auxiliary is a leaf: it has no dependents of its own. Conditions and exceptions. Allowed dependents of an auxiliary: fixed, goeswith, reparandum, conj and cc (coordinated auxiliaries: We can and will get there), punct. Negation is attached to the predicate in English EWT (see negation-not). When the main verb is elided, the auxiliary becomes the head and may have a subject — it is then no longer aux (see vp-ellipsis). This rule is a permissive list, as in the UD validator; Function words are leaves of the tree gives the complementary prohibited list. In UD. aux(lying, might), aux(lying, have), aux(lying, been) — not aux(have, might). A node with aux/aux:pass/cop has no children other than those listed. Examples. By that time, the story would have been revealed. — all three (would, have, been) depend on revealed. Sources. UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Auxiliaries; Function words attaching to predicates); UD 2.18 validator, test leaf-aux-cop; UD docs/_en/dep/aux_.md. Rules. en.verbal.aux-leaf (error): dependents of aux/aux:pass/cop (other than negation) must be goeswith, fixed, reparandum, conj, cc or punct.

aux-head-nonfinite

The verb with an auxiliary is always non-finite

Gist. The first auxiliary carries finiteness (tense, person, number); the main verb after an auxiliary is non-finite: bare infinitive (can go), -ing participle (is going) or -ed/-en participle (has gone, was taken). An -s form or past tense after an auxiliary is impossible (*does goes, *will went). Conditions and exceptions. If the text itself is wrong (does has), the annotation should reflect the form and the rule then flags a textual error, which is also useful. When the auxiliary goes with a nominal predicate (is a doctor), it is cop and the rule does not apply. In UD. A verbal head of aux/aux:pass has XPOS VB, VBG or VBN, never VBZ, VBP, VBD, MD. Examples. She will go. — They have eaten. — He was killed. — *He does goes (error in the text). Sources. Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI; UD docs/_en/feat/VerbForm.md; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lessons 131–132. Rules. en.verbal.aux-head-nonfinite (error): a VERB/AUX with an auxiliary is not VBZ|VBP|VBD|MD.

aux-no-object

Do, have, be with an object — lexical verbs

Gist. Have, do, be can be auxiliaries or full verbs (have "possess", do "perform", be "exist"). An auxiliary has no object of its own; if have/do has an object (I have a car, do the dishes), it is VERB. Conditions and exceptions. In ellipsis the auxiliary becomes the head and may "inherit" a fronted object of the elided verb (how many we can [reach], the things that we do [feel]), so AUX with obj is possible. Have to (I have to go) is VERB with xcomp. In UD. AUX with a dependent obj/iobj is suspicious — most likely it should be VERB. Examples. I have eaten (AUX). — I have a dog (VERB). — Do your homework (VERB). — Mary didn't leave, John did (AUX as head, no object). Sources. UD docs/_en/pos/AUX_.md (ambiguity with VERB); Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI, Obs. 4; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (VP ellipsis). Rules. en.verbal.aux-no-object (warn): a word with UPOS AUX has no obj/iobj.

clausal-complement

Complement clause (ccomp)

Gist. A subordinate clause can be the complement of a verb or adjective: He says that you like to swim, I am certain that he did it, I wonder whether it works. Such a clause has its own subject (or is direct speech, or a to-infinitive after verbs of speaking: The boss said to start digging). The complementizer that can be omitted. Conditions and exceptions. ccomp itself fills the direct-object slot, so it never co-occurs with obj; an addressee next to it is iobj (I told them that I'm coming). A clause after a noun (the fact that…, no idea what…) is not ccomp but acl of the noun: nouns take no clausal complements. In UD. ccomp does not co-occur with obj of the same head. Examples. He says that you like to swim. — I told them that I'm planning to come (iobj + ccomp). — He had no idea what he was talking about (acl of idea, not ccomp of had). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/ccomp.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Core arguments; Clausal core arguments); Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lessons 71–72; Jespersen, MEG V, ch. XII. Rules. en.verbal.ccomp-no-obj (warn): a head with ccomp has no obj.

copula-be-only

The copula is only be

Gist. When the predicate is a noun, adjective or prepositional phrase (Bill is honest, Sue is a patriot, We are in the barn), be only links subject and predicate — it is a copula. In English UD only be is a copula; become, seem, remain, look, get, grow, turn are ordinary verbs and their predicative is xcomp. Conditions and exceptions. Be is not a copula when it means "exist" (There is a cow in the field; VERB), in progressive forms (aux), in the passive (aux:pass), or in quotative be like (I was like, "What?"; VERB with compound:prt). Logic textbooks (and Reed & Kellogg) call any asserting word a copula; UD is narrower. In UD. cop: lemma be, UPOS AUX. The head of the clause is the predicative, and the subject attaches to it. Examples. Bill is honest — cop(honest, is). — Bill got rich — xcomp(got, rich). — I became very upset — xcomp. Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/cop.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Copular verbs; Functional control); Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 29; Jespersen, MEG III, ch. XVII–XVIII (Predicatives). Rules. en.verbal.cop-be-only (error): cop has lemma be and UPOS AUX.

copula-equative-order

Equating two nouns: the subject is the first one

Gist. In equative clauses (Rolfe's wife was Pocahontas, The title is Green Eggs and Ham) both nouns are on equal footing. Reed & Kellogg suggested choosing the subject by meaning (what the reader already knows); UD uses a formal criterion: the subject is the first noun, the predicative the second. Conditions and exceptions. The subject follows the predicative in inversion (Among the weapons intercepted were two launchers) and in questions (Who is he?). Brown: the verb between two nouns agrees with the first, "except when the terms are transposed" (The wages of sin is death). In UD. For a NOUN/PROPN head with cop, a nominal nsubj stands to the left of the head; otherwise it is an inversion (check) or the roles are swapped. Examples. Words are wind. — Lizards are reptiles. — Among the strongest proponents of war were Sharon and his supporters (inversion: nsubj after). Sources. UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Copulas); Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 29; Brown 1851, Rule XIV Note V. Rules. en.verbal.equative-subject-first (warn): a nominal subject of a nominal copular head precedes the head.

copula-predicate-head

In a copular clause the head is the predicative

Gist. UD makes the predicative (noun, adjective, prepositional phrase, pronoun), not be, the head of a copular clause, so the subject, negation and adverbials attach to it: Bill is honest — nsubj(honest, Bill). A nominal or pronominal predicate cannot have a direct object — objects belong only to verbs (and worth, like, unlike). Conditions and exceptions. A verb under a copula occurs only in a predicate clause (The important thing is to keep calm), which then has an outer subject nsubj:outer. In questions the wh-word is the head: What is that? — cop(What, is). In UD. A cop head with UPOS NOUN, PROPN, PRON or NUM has no obj/iobj; a cop head with UPOS VERB has nsubj:outer or csubj:outer. Examples. Sue is a true patriot. — The light is on (head: the preposition on). — The plan is to leave (nsubj:outer). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/cop.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Copulas; Core arguments); Brown 1851, Rule VI; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 29. Rules. en.verbal.cop-nominal-no-object (error): a nominal copular predicate has no obj/iobj; en.verbal.cop-verb-head-outer (warn): a verb under a copula has an outer subject.

core-objects

Direct object: only on a verb, only one

Gist. A direct object is a noun completing a transitive verb without a preposition (Washington captured Cornwallis). Only verbs have objects (plus the adjectives worth, like, unlike: It's worth the money). A predicate has at most one direct object; a second "object" is an indirect object (gave me a raise), an object predicative (made him king, see objective-complement), or a bare-noun adverbial (walked three miles, arrived this morning). Conditions and exceptions. Coordinated objects (captured Cornwallis and his army) are one obj with conj. Full-verb have/do with an object is VERB. In ellipsis the object may hang on an auxiliary that has become the head. In UD. obj/iobj have a VERB head (AUX only in ellipsis) or an ADJ worth/like/unlike; a head has at most one obj. Examples. She gave me a raise — obj(gave, raise), iobj(gave, me). — They elected him president — obj(him), xcomp(president). — *a man honesty (a noun with obj is an error). Sources. Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 28; Brown 1851, Rule V; UD docs/_en/dep/obj.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Core arguments); UD 2.18 validator, too-many-objects; Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §81. Rules. en.verbal.single-object (error): at most one obj per head; en.verbal.object-head-predicate (error): the head of obj/iobj is VERB, AUX or ADJ; en.verbal.object-head-adjective (warn): among adjectives only worth, like, unlike take objects.

do-support

Do-support: do + infinitive

Gist. In negation, questions, emphasis and ellipsis, when no other auxiliary is present, English inserts do: I do not love, Did you see?, I do believe it. After do the main verb is a bare infinitive. Do never combines with modals or perfect have (*does can, *did have eaten). Conditions and exceptions. In the imperative do combines with be and the passive (Don't be silly, Do be informed, did not get assigned), so the head may be an adjective or a VBN participle (with aux:pass). Full-verb do (do the work) is VERB (see aux-no-object). Archaic "redundant" do (all the beasts … do creep forth) is also do-support. In UD. do is aux, AUX; a verbal head has XPOS VB (or VBN with aux:pass), never VBZ, VBP, VBD, VBG; no other aux of the same head is a modal or have. Examples. He does not know. — Don't be evil. — *He did not went. — *She doesn't can swim. Sources. Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (Form of Negation; Form of Question; Obs. 11 on expletive do); Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §4c; Jespersen, MEG V, ch. XXIII (Negation); UD auxiliary registry. Rules. en.verbal.do-support-base (error): the main verb after do is not finite and not VBG; en.verbal.do-support-vbn-pass (error): VBN with do only together with aux:pass; en.verbal.do-support-no-modal (error): do does not co-occur with modals or have.

existential-there

Existential there is

Gist. There is/are states that something exists or is somewhere (There is a ghost in the room). There is not a place adverb but a formal placeholder in subject position; the notional subject follows the verb and the verb agrees with it (There are magicians). Be here is not a copula but a full verb "exist". Conditions and exceptions. There also occurs with seem, appear, exist, remain, come (There seems to be a problem); the notional subject then attaches to be under xcomp. Colloquial there's + plural is textual disagreement. There meaning "in that place" (Put it there) is an adverb. In UD. there: PRON, XPOS EX, expl (the tag itself is checked by en.nominal.ex-there). Be with expletive there has UPOS VERB (not AUX, not cop). The notional subject is nsubj of the same head, to the right of there. Examples. There's a cow in the field. — Is there a ghost? — There must be a reason (expl with be plus a modal). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/expl.md, docs/_en/dep/nsubj.md, docs/_en/dep/cop.md, docs/_en/pos/AUX_.md; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 44; Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI. Rules. en.verbal.existential-be-verb (error): be with expletive there is VERB; en.verbal.existential-subject (warn): there is an nsubj after there.

expletive-it

Expletive it: extraposition, cleft, weather

Gist. It can be an empty placeholder: (1) extraposition, where the real clausal subject comes at the end (It is important that your students respect you, It's hard to make money); (2) clefts (It was Joseph Goebbels who said that); (3) weather and time (It is raining, It's late); (4) in object position (I find it best not to think about that). Conditions and exceptions. In tough-constructions without it (This problem is hard to solve) the infinitive is xcomp of the adjective; with it it is csubj. Referential it (I bought a car; it is red) is nsubj. Rarely, that serves as the cleft placeholder (that was 2 days ago that I called). In UD. Expletive it is expl, PRON. The same head usually has a clause (csubj, csubj:pass, ccomp, xcomp, advcl, advcl:relcl); without one it is weather it or an error. With an adjective and expletive it, the infinitive is csubj, not xcomp. Examples. It is rare to find such nice workers (expl + csubj). — It's John who we want to help (expl + advcl:relcl). — It is raining (expl without a clause). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/expl.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Core arguments; Tough-constructions); UD docs/_en/dep/acl-relcl.md (It-clefts); UD docs/_en/dep/csubj.md; UD 2.18 validator, rel-upos-expl. Rules. en.verbal.expl-it-has-clause (warn): expletive it has a clause at its head; en.verbal.tough-expl-csubj (warn): with an adjective and expletive it, no xcomp; en.verbal.expl-is-pron (error): expl is PRON; en.verbal.expl-it-or-there (warn): expl lemma is it or there.

finite-verb-subject

A finite verb has its own subject

Gist. Unlike pro-drop languages, an English finite verb almost always has an overt subject (I came, I saw, I conquered); even impersonal predicates take formal it/there. Subjectless finite verbs occur in the imperative (Go!), as the second of coordinated predicates (He came and saw), and in colloquial initial omission (Hope you're well, Looks like rain). Conditions and exceptions. A shared subject attaches only to the first coordinated predicate; the second conj has no subject (coordination structure: Coordination: the head is the first conjunct, cc is on the next one). In relative clauses the relative pronoun is the subject; in free relatives (What irritates me…) the relative word is the head and no subject is visible. In UD. A VERB with Mood=Ind as root, ccomp, advcl or parataxis usually has nsubj/nsubj:pass/csubj/csubj:pass or expl. Absence means colloquial omission or a misattached subject. Examples. It reminds me of Vietnam. — Seems as if there is a clear distinction (colloquial omission). — He was tired and went home (second predicate without nsubj is normal). Sources. Brown 1851, Rule XIV Note VIII; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lessons 20 and 57; Jespersen 1924, The Philosophy of Grammar, pp. 142, 310 (prosiopesis); Curme 1931, §5 b, d; UD docs/_en/dep/expl.md, docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Coordination). Rules. en.verbal.finite-has-subject (warn): an indicative VERB as root/ccomp/advcl has a subject or expl, unless only punctuation, conjunctions, adverbs or interjections precede it (initial omission), the lemma is thank/hope, or the clause is marked by as/than (as follows); en.verbal.parataxis-has-subject (warn): the same for parataxis, also excused when the governing clause has a subject before it (Staff is friendly, treat you as a friend).

gapping-orphan

Gapping: omitted predicate and orphan

Gist. In coordinated clauses the predicate of the second is often omitted, leaving two remnants contrasted with the first clause: Marie went to Paris and Miriam [went] to Prague. The tree promotes one remnant (usually the subject) to the predicate position and attaches the others to it with the special relation orphan. Conditions and exceptions. orphan is used only when the predicate is entirely missing; if an auxiliary remains, it is VP ellipsis (the auxiliary is the head, no orphan). Right-node raising (John bought and ate an apple) is ordinary coordination. The promoted remnant is usually conj (sometimes parataxis, or advcl in comparatives: He buys companies like my mother [does] vegetables). In UD. The head of orphan has relation conj, parataxis, root, csubj, ccomp, advcl, acl or reparandum (with subtypes). Examples. Marie went to Paris and Miriam to Prague — conj(went, Miriam), orphan(Miriam, Prague). — He's not against gays in the bedroom, just at the altar. Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/orphan.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Gapping/Stripping; Right-node raising); UD 2.18 validator, orphan-parent; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 57. Rules. en.verbal.orphan-parent (warn): the head of orphan has one of the listed relations.

gerund-participle

The -ing form: gerund or participle

Gist. The -ing form has two roles. The gerund is a verb used as a noun: subject, object, after a preposition (Swimming is fun, I enjoyed working with you, for keeping money). The participle is a verb used as a modifier or adverbial, and in progressive forms (a sleeping child, He left, saying nothing, is sleeping). Modern grammars (CGEL) see one "gerund-participial" form; UD approximates the traditional split. Conditions and exceptions. An -ing word that has become a noun (the opening of the store, a building) is NOUN without verbal features. The border between gerund and verbal noun is fuzzy (Poutsma §§53–55); the criterion is whether the word keeps verbal government (a direct object, an adverb). In UD. VBG: VerbForm=Ger (no Tense) in nominal positions and without aux; VerbForm=Part|Tense=Pres with aux and in modifier/adverbial roles. A gerund never has aux. Examples. I enjoyed working with you (Ger). — I will be driving home (Part). — The opening was delayed (NOUN). Sources. UD docs/_en/feat/VerbForm.md (Ger, Part; VBG rules since v2.14); Poutsma 1923, The Gerund, §1 and §§49–55; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 37; Jespersen, MEG V, ch. VIII–IX (The Gerund). Rules. en.verbal.gerund-no-aux (error): VerbForm=Ger has no aux/aux:pass (missing Tense is checked by en.morph.vbg-gerund-no-tense).

get-passive

Get: passive auxiliary or lexical verb

Gist. Colloquial get with a past participle forms a passive (The book got stolen, I got put on hold) and is then an auxiliary. Elsewhere get is an ordinary verb: "become" with an adjective (Bill got rich), causative (I got it fixed), "receive" (I got a letter), have got. Conditions and exceptions. Causative get + object + participle (got it fixed) is not a passive of get: it is the object, fixed is xcomp. Get has no auxiliary function other than the passive. In UD. get as AUX is only aux:pass (or a head in ellipsis, conj). Examples. He got shot. (AUX, aux:pass) — Bill got rich. (VERB + xcomp) — I got it fixed. (VERB + obj + xcomp). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/aux_.md; UD docs/_en/pos/AUX_.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Auxiliaries). Rules. en.verbal.get-aux-passive-only (error): get with UPOS AUX is aux:pass, conj or root.

imperative

Imperative mood

Gist. Commands and requests use the form identical to the bare infinitive (Make a sandwich!, Be careful). The subject is usually omitted; if present, it precedes the verb (You go first, Somebody help me). Negative and emphatic imperatives use do (Don't go, Do come); an imperative verb has no other auxiliaries (modals, have, passive be). Conditions and exceptions. Let's go is an imperative of let (VERB) with object us and xcomp. In Don't be silly the imperative is Do (AUX) and be is a copula. For the main verb after imperative do, the UD VerbForm page prescribes Inf, while EWT 2.18 marks it Mood=Imp|VerbForm=Fin in about 98 of 106 cases; the rule below follows EWT and only warns. In UD. Imperative: XPOS VB, Mood=Imp, VerbForm=Fin, no Tense. Its only possible auxiliary is do. Examples. Read the book! — Don't take that deal. — *Must try! (error: modal with an imperative). Sources. UD docs/_en/feat/Mood.md (Imp); UD docs/_en/feat/VerbForm.md; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lessons 56 and 131; Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (Form of Negation); Jespersen, MEG V, ch. XXIV (Requests). Rules. en.verbal.imperative-form (error): imperative is VB, VerbForm=Fin, no Tense; en.verbal.imperative-aux-do-only (error): an imperative verb has no auxiliary other than do; en.verbal.imperative-do-main-verb (warn): the main verb with imperative do is also Mood=Imp|VerbForm=Fin (EWT practice).

indirect-object

Indirect object (iobj)

Gist. The indirect object is the recipient or addressee without a preposition (She gave me a raise, Tell them a story); it precedes the direct object. The same role with a preposition (gave it to me) is not an object but obl. Conditions and exceptions. Since UD 2.12, iobj may be the only object if the verb allows a second one: tell them (cf. tell them a story), tell them that the party is canceled (with ccomp), teach her students to write well (with xcomp). In questions and relative clauses the direct object is fronted (What did you give him?). Verbs licensing iobj are listed in Verbs that take an indirect object. In UD. iobj stands to the left of a nominal obj of the same head. Examples. They gave me the trip as a gift. — I told them that I'm coming (iobj + ccomp). — How much notification would you give the customers? (obj fronted). Sources. UD docs/changes.md (Sole iobj, v2.12); UD docs/_u-dep/iobj.md; UD docs/_en/dep/iobj.md; UD docs/_en/dep/obl.md; Jespersen, MEG III, ch. XIV §14.11; PropBank 3.1, give.01. Rules. en.verbal.iobj-before-obj (warn): iobj precedes a nominal obj.

infinitive-coordination

Coordinated infinitives: to once

Gist. When two infinitives with the same role are coordinated, to is often placed only before the first (to read and write). The second infinitive does not become finite; it shares the to. Conditions and exceptions. With three or more infinitives to is mostly repeated before each; repetition stresses the separateness of the actions. After but and than different rules apply (Poutsma §§44–48). In UD. The second infinitive is conj of the first, has no mark(to) of its own, and stays VB with VerbForm=Inf. Examples. My advice is to go to the website and click "contact us". — She wanted to read and (to) write. Sources. Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §§53–55; Brown 1851, Rule XVII Note V; UD docs/_en/feat/VerbForm.md (Inf). Rules. en.verbal.conj-infinitive-shares-to (warn): a VB conjunct of a to-infinitive is also VerbForm=Inf.

modal-bare-infinitive

After a modal — a bare infinitive

Gist. A modal (can, may, must, will, shall, etc.) requires a bare infinitive (I can swim, you must go). If more auxiliaries follow, the one after the modal is also an infinitive (might have been, could be done). A finite form after a modal is impossible, and two modals in a row are not used in the standard language. Conditions and exceptions. Ought takes to (ought to go) but remains a modal AUX. Double modals (might could) occur in Southern US dialects, so the second rule only warns; more often, two modals on one predicate mean that one is attached to the wrong verb (from a different clause). In UD. The modal is aux with XPOS MD; other aux/aux:pass/cop of the same head to its right are not VBZ, VBP, VBD. Examples. He should leave. — Reagan might have been lying. — *He can goes. — *The hope may … can be offered (the second modal belongs to another clause). Sources. Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §4 and §§60–62; Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (potential mood); UD docs/_en/dep/aux_.md. Rules. en.verbal.modal-next-nonfinite (error): auxiliaries/copula after a modal are non-finite; en.verbal.double-modal (warn): two MD auxiliaries on one head.

need-dare

Need and dare: modal and lexical

Gist. Need and dare behave in two ways. As modals they have no -s, take no do and go with a bare infinitive, mostly in questions and negation (Need I say more?, He need not go, How dare you?). As full verbs they inflect and take do and to (He needs to go, You don't need to shout). Conditions and exceptions. Dare after do is often without to (don't dare go) — that is full-verb dare with a bare xcomp. I dare say is a fixed phrase. Need with a bare infinitive is treated as an auxiliary (as in Brown and in UD). In UD. Modal: AUX, aux, the head has no mark(to). Full verb: VERB, the infinitive is xcomp with mark(to). Examples. You needn't shout (AUX). — You need to shout (VERB + xcomp). — He dare not come (AUX). Sources. UD docs/_en/pos/AUX_.md; Brown 1851, Rule XIX Obs. 7 and Obs. 12–13; Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §§6–15 (need) and §§16–31 (dare). Rules. en.verbal.need-aux-bare (error): auxiliary need/dare — no to on the infinitive; en.verbal.need-verb-to (warn): full-verb need with a VB xcomp has to.

negation-not

Negation not / n't

Gist. Clauses are negated with not (n't) placed after the first auxiliary (I have not seen, She willn't go); without an auxiliary, do is added (I do not know). Infinitives and participles take not before them (not to go, not knowing). Not scopes over the whole predicate, so in UD it attaches to the main verb (or predicative), not to the auxiliary. Conditions and exceptions. Not as the remnant of an elliptical clause (If not, …, Why not?, I hope not) becomes a head or an adverbial. Not only … but also is advmod/cc:preconj; in whether or not, not attaches to or. The split infinitive to not attempt is normal. Other negative words (never, no, nobody) are separate parts of speech with Polarity=Neg. In UD. not/n't: UPOS PART, XPOS RB, Polarity=Neg, advmod of the predicate. The validator allows negation on a function word, but English treebanks attach it to the predicate. Examples. Kennedy has not been killed — advmod(killed, not). — Don't go — advmod(go, n't). — If not, is there someone else? Sources. Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (Form of Negation); Jespersen, MEG V, ch. XXIII (Negation); UD docs/_en/pos/PART.md; UD docs/_en/feat/Polarity.md; UD 2.18 validator (functional-leaves exception for negation). Rules. en.verbal.not-part-neg (warn): not as PART has Polarity=Neg and one of the expected relations (advmod, or a head role in ellipsis, etc.); en.verbal.negation-on-predicate (warn): a negative PART attached to an auxiliary or copula should not be advmod there.

objective-complement

Predicative complement of the object: made him king

Gist. After make, call, name, elect, appoint, consider, think, find, keep, leave, paint the object also receives a predicate: They made Victoria queen, I consider him a fool, Custom renders the feelings blunt. This is not a second object: queen says what Victoria became (Reed & Kellogg's objective complement, or factitive object). Conditions and exceptions. With as (We consider time as a sacred trust, regard X as Y) EWT annotates the phrase as obl with case(as) (with the verb being, as advcl with mark(as)). In the passive the predicative remains (He was elected president — xcomp). Resultatives (The pond froze solid) are also xcomp. In UD. A predicative noun or adjective on the object is xcomp of the verb (not obj: there is no second obj, see core-objects). Examples. They made Victoria queen — obj(made, Victoria), xcomp(made, queen). — He painted the barn red. — Many Iraqis regard the date as a day of hope (obl + case as). Sources. Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 31 (Objective Complements); UD docs/_en/dep/xcomp.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Resultatives); Jespersen, MEG III, ch. XVII–XVIII (Predicatives). Rules. None (descriptive seed).

open-complement-xcomp

Open complement (xcomp): no subject of its own

Gist. Some verbs take a complement whose "subject" is borrowed from the main clause: Sue asked George to respond (George responds), You like to swim, I consider him honest, She looks beautiful, He painted the barn red. This is xcomp: always non-finite and without its own subject. Conditions and exceptions. It covers raising verbs (seem, appear, tend), control verbs (want, try, persuade), copula-like verbs (become, remain, look) and resultatives (paint red, make them martyrs). When the subordinate clause has its own finite subject, it is ccomp. An xcomp with its own nsubj is an error, except for raising with there (there seems to be a problem: problem attaches to be). In UD. xcomp has no nsubj/nsubj:pass/csubj/csubj:pass; a verbal xcomp is not VBZ, VBP, VBD, MD. Examples. He says that you like to swim — xcomp(like, swim). — The cat seems to be in pain. — I became very upset. Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/xcomp.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Functional control; Resultatives); UD docs/_u-dep/xcomp.md; Jespersen, MEG V, ch. XVIII; PropBank 3.1, seem.01, persuade.01. Rules. en.verbal.xcomp-no-subject (warn): xcomp has no subject of its own; en.verbal.xcomp-nonfinite (error): a verbal xcomp is non-finite.

outer-subject

Outer subject with a predicate clause

Gist. The predicate of a copular clause can be a whole subordinate clause (The problem is that this has never been tried, The important thing is to keep calm). The predicate of the inner clause (tried, keep) then becomes the head, the copula attaches to it, and the subject of the outer clause is marked as "outer". Conditions and exceptions. The :outer subtype is only for such predicate clauses. If the predicate is a noun or adjective (The title is Green Eggs and Ham, That book is very good), the subject is plain nsubj. In pseudoclefts (What John did was to play tennis) the subject What is also nsubj:outer. In UD. Only heads that have a cop take nsubj:outer/csubj:outer. Examples. The problem is that this has never been tried. — To hike in the mountains is to experience the best of nature (csubj:outer). — It was because Bill is honest. Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/nsubj-outer.md, docs/_en/dep/csubj-outer.md, docs/_en/dep/cop.md; UD docs/_en/dep/acl-relcl.md (Pseudoclefts); UD 2.18 validator (outer subjects are not counted as inner). Rules. en.verbal.outer-subject-needs-cop (warn): a head with an outer subject has a cop.

participle-or-adjective

Participle or adjective

Gist. -ed/-en and -ing forms sit between verb and adjective. Verbal nature shows in tense, an object, an agent or adverbials (the letters written yesterday, was worn by Joseph); adjectival nature shows in comparison or intensifiers (very tired, more interesting), a negative un- without a matching verb (unexpected), or use after seem, become. Denominal -ed adjectives (talented, skilled, gifted, kind-hearted) are not participles at all (see Adjectives in -ed from nouns: talented, blue-eyed). Conditions and exceptions. A nearby very is not proof (very much appreciated — very modifies much). Un- also occurs on real verbs (undo, unlock → unlocked). The coat was badly worn is adjectival; The coat was worn by Joseph is passive. In UD. Adjectival use: ADJ (JJ), with be as cop; verbal use: VERB (VBN/VBG), with be as aux:pass/aux. The intensifier very attaches to an ADJ, not a VERB. Examples. I am very interested (ADJ). — He was interested by the offer (VERB, passive). — a talented singer (ADJ from the noun talent). Sources. Poutsma 1923, Participles, §§7–13, 17, 21–22, 33, 35, 42; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 129; UD docs/_en/feat/Voice.md. Rules. en.verbal.very-participle (warn): very as advmod of a VBN/VBG verb suggests the word should be ADJ.

passive-agent

The agent in the passive: by + noun

Gist. The doer in a passive clause is expressed by a by-phrase (The cat was chased by the dog). Reed & Kellogg's test: if by + agent can be added to be + participle without changing the meaning, it is a passive; if not, it is an adjective after a copula (The coat was badly worn). Conditions and exceptions. Not every by is an agent: by the window (place), by Friday (time) are plain obl. An agent can also occur with a passive participle without an auxiliary (paintings eaten by moths). In UD. The agent is obl:agent with by as its case; the head is a verb with Voice=Pass. Examples. We were delighted by the snow. — It has been eaten by moths. — He sat by the fire (not an agent; obl). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/obl-agent.md, docs/_en/feat/Voice.md; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 129; Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §85. Rules. en.verbal.agent-passive-by (error): obl:agent only on a Voice=Pass head and with a case by.

passive-aux

Passive: be or get + past participle

Gist. The passive shows that the subject undergoes the action. It is built from be (less often colloquial get) and a past participle (was killed, is being built, got stolen), and only from verbs that take an object (Caesar was slain, but not *He was arrived). Conditions and exceptions. Verbs of similar meaning (become, seem) are never passive auxiliaries (He became known — xcomp). Passive infinitive to be given, passive perfect has been given, passive gerund being punished. A prepositional passive (That matter was talked about) is also a passive; the preposition is left without its noun. In UD. The passive auxiliary is aux:pass, lemma be or get, UPOS AUX; its head is VERB, XPOS VBN, Voice=Pass. Examples. Kennedy was killed. — Kennedy got killed. — He was to be released before dawn (be is aux:pass, was is aux). Sources. Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (Form of Passive Verbs); Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 129; Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §58; UD docs/_en/dep/aux-pass.md, docs/_en/feat/Voice.md. Rules. en.verbal.passive-aux-lemma (error): aux:pass is be or get; en.verbal.passive-aux-head (error): the head of aux:pass is VERB, VBN, Voice=Pass.

passive-subject

Passive subject

Gist. In the passive, the active object becomes the subject (he loves her → she is loved (by him)). Since this subject is not the doer, UD labels it separately — nsubj:pass (or csubj:pass for a clausal subject); conversely, a passive verb cannot have a plain nsubj. Conditions and exceptions. The indirect object can also become the passive subject (I was given a horse; horse stays as object). Not every verb with an object has a passive (cost, weigh, last, resemble; see Verbs without a passive and without an object). A passive subject can occur without an auxiliary — in absolute constructions (with some used as building material) and headlines (Man arrested) — so the third rule only warns. In UD. Only Voice=Pass heads take nsubj:pass/csubj:pass; a Voice=Pass head has no nsubj/csubj; usually an aux:pass is present. Examples. Dole was defeated by Clinton. — That she lied was suspected by everyone (csubj:pass). — Armed militias, many staffed by former soldiers, … (no aux:pass). Sources. Jespersen, MEG III, ch. XV §15.11 (Subject of Passive Verb); Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 129; UD docs/_en/dep/nsubj-pass.md, docs/_en/dep/csubj-pass.md, docs/_en/feat/Voice.md. Rules. en.verbal.passive-subject-voice (error): passive subjects only with Voice=Pass; en.verbal.passive-no-active-subject (error): a Voice=Pass verb has no nsubj/csubj; en.verbal.passive-subject-aux (warn): nsubj:pass usually comes with aux:pass, except in advcl heads, with-constructions and sentences with no finite verb.

perfect-have

Perfect: have + past participle

Gist. Perfect forms are built from have and a past participle (has gone, had seen, will have finished). The perfect is not a passive: Moths have eaten the painting is active, although eaten has the same form as in the passive. Conditions and exceptions. The archaic be-perfect (He is come) survives only in be gone, be done, usually as an adjective after a copula. Have with an infinitive (have to go) is neither perfect nor auxiliary (see semi-modals); have meaning "possess" is VERB. The passive perfect has both auxiliaries: has been eaten (aux + aux:pass). In UD. have is aux, AUX; the head is VERB with XPOS VBN (or VBG via been: has been lying), never VB, VBZ, VBP, VBD. A perfect participle without aux:pass has no Voice=Pass. Examples. I have eaten the plums. — It has been eaten by moths (passive: been present). — *She has go. Sources. Jespersen, MEG IV (Time and Tense), ch. III; Poutsma 1923, Participles, §8; UD docs/_en/feat/Voice.md; UD docs/_en/pos/AUX_.md. Rules. en.verbal.perfect-have-participle (error): the main verb with perfect have is not VB|VBZ|VBP|VBD; en.verbal.perfect-not-passive (warn): a VBN with have and Voice=Pass must have aux:pass.

progressive-be-ing

Progressive tenses: be + -ing

Gist. The progressive (Poutsma's "expanded") form is be + -ing participle (I am writing, he was sitting). It presents an action in progress, temporary or incomplete, and also a planned future (I am leaving tomorrow) or disapproving repetition (you are always grumbling). Conditions and exceptions. Stative verbs (know, believe, belong, contain, literal see, hear) rarely take the progressive (see Stative verbs hardly take the progressive). Progressive copula be means behaviour (you are being clever); being is then cop and the head is the adjective. An -ing form after be without progressive meaning may be an adjective (The film is interesting) — cop + ADJ. In UD. be is aux (not cop); the head is VERB, XPOS VBG, VerbForm=Part|Tense=Pres. Any VBG with aux is a participle (Part), not a gerund. Examples. We are eating cake. — She must be coming now. — You are being very clever (being is cop). Sources. Poutsma 1921, The Expanded Form, §§1–38; Jespersen, MEG IV, ch. XII–XIV (The Expanded Tenses); Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (Compound or Progressive Form); UD docs/_en/feat/VerbForm.md; UD docs/_en/dep/cop.md. Rules. en.verbal.progressive-vbg-feats (error): a VBG verb with aux has VerbForm=Part.

purpose-clause

Infinitive of purpose — an adverbial (advcl), not a complement

Gist. An infinitive can be a complement of the verb (I want to help) or an adverbial of purpose (I came to see you = in order to see). A complement is required by the verb itself; a purpose adverbial can be added to almost any action and replaced by in order to. A phrase with in order to is always an adverbial. Conditions and exceptions. A purpose infinitive after verbs of motion (come, go, sit down) is advcl; go to see differs from want to see. An infinitive on a noun (a house to live in) is acl. In UD. A clause with mark(in) + fixed(order) is not xcomp, ccomp or csubj (usually advcl). Examples. He talked to him in order to secure the account — advcl. — I came to tell you — advcl. — I tried to finish it — xcomp. Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/advcl.md; UD docs/_en/dep/xcomp.md; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 40; Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §3. Rules. en.verbal.in-order-to-advcl (warn): an in order to clause is not xcomp|ccomp|csubj.

questions-inversion

Questions: inversion and the fronted wh-word

Gist. Yes/no questions use inversion: the first auxiliary precedes the subject (Are you going?, Has he left?); without an auxiliary, do is added (Did you see it?). In wh-questions the wh-word comes first but keeps its role in the clause: What did you see? (object), Who called? (subject, no inversion), Where do you live? (adverbial). In archaic and poetic style the main verb itself inverts (Have you any thoughts?, What say ye?). Conditions and exceptions. If the wh-word is the subject or modifies it, word order is normal (Which boy won?). Indirect questions (I wonder where he lives) have no inversion. In questions with copular be, the wh-predicative is the head (What is that? — cop(What, is), nsubj(What, that)). In UD. Dependencies are the same as in the declarative; only order changes: a fronted obj stands left of the verb, aux left of nsubj. Word-order rules (e.g. iobj-before-obj) give false warnings on questions. Examples. What did you see? — obj(see, What), aux(see, did). — Who is he? — How much notification would you give? (fronted object phrase). Sources. Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 55 (Arrangement — Interrogative Sentences); Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (Form of Question); Jespersen, MEG V, ch. XXV (Questions); UD docs/_en/dep/cop.md. Rules. None (descriptive seed).

semi-modals

Have to, be going to, used to — not auxiliaries

Gist. Have to (must), be going to (intend), used to (habitual past) are close to modals in meaning but are ordinary verbs with an infinitive: have inflects (has to, had to), takes do-support (doesn't have to) and has an infinitive (will have to). Ought to, by contrast, is a true modal. Conditions and exceptions. Be in be going to is an ordinary aux of going. Gonna is tokenized as gon + na: gon is VERB, na is PART (mark). Had better is a special fixed combination; better is not a verb there. In UD. have/going/used are VERB and the head; the infinitive is xcomp with mark(to). Not aux. Examples. I have to leave. — I'm going to take a nap. — It used to snow here. — You ought to go (ought is AUX, MD). Sources. UD docs/_en/pos/AUX_.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md; Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §5 Obs. II and §32; Brown 1851, Rule XVII Note XII. Rules. en.verbal.have-to-verb, en.verbal.going-to-verb, en.verbal.used-to-verb (error): have, going/gon and used with a to-infinitive xcomp are VERB.

single-subject

One subject per predicate

Gist. Each predicate has at most one subject. Apparent double subjects are coordinated (John and Mary is one subject with two parts), belong to another (subordinate) clause, or are parentheticals, vocatives or dislocated elements (My brother, he never listens). Conditions and exceptions. The only legitimate double subject is a predicate clause in a copular sentence: The problem is that this has never been tried — outer subject problem is nsubj:outer, inner this is nsubj:pass (see outer-subject). Placeholder there/it is not a subject (expl). In UD. Among the children of a node at most one has nsubj, nsubj:pass, csubj or csubj:pass. Examples. Clinton defeated Dole — one nsubj. — My brother, he never listens — brother is dislocated, not a second subject. Sources. UD 2.18 validator, too-many-subjects; UD docs/changes.md (Multiple Subjects, v2.10); UD docs/_en/dep/nsubj-outer.md; Brown 1851, Rules II and III. Rules. en.verbal.single-subject (error): at most one inner subject per head.

subjunctive

Subjunctive mood

Gist. The subjunctive presents an action as a demand, supposition or wish rather than a fact. The present subjunctive is the bare form even in the third person (I suggest that he see a doctor, It is vital that she be present); the past subjunctive is were for all persons (If I were rich…). So he see, I were are not agreement errors when they are subjunctive. Conditions and exceptions. The "mandative" subjunctive follows verbs of demand and advice (suggest, insist, ask that, recommend); in conditional and concessive clauses (if, though, whether) it has largely been replaced by the indicative. Brown advised avoiding the subjunctive where a reader would take it for an agreement error. In UD. EWT 2.18 marks the subjunctive: VB → Mood=Sub|VerbForm=Fin|Tense=Pres (with person and number), were → Mood=Sub|Tense=Past (the data distinguish it even though the Mood guideline page says it is not distinguished). A VB with VerbForm=Fin is either imperative or subjunctive (checked by en.morph.vb-finite-mood). Examples. …suggesting that we go out and fight them. — Whether such an offer were accepted… — If it were not so, I would have told you. Sources. UD docs/_en/feat/Mood.md (Sub); UD docs/_en/feat/Tense.md; Brown 1851, Rule XIV Notes IX–X; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 131; Jespersen, MEG IV, ch. IX–X (Imaginative use of Tenses). Rules. en.verbal.subjunctive-present-feats (error): a VB with Mood=Sub has VerbForm=Fin and Tense=Pres.

subordinators-mark

Subordinating conjunctions — mark

Gist. A subordinate clause is introduced by a conjunction: that, whether, if for complement clauses; because, although, though, if, unless, while, since, until, before, after, as, once, so that for adverbial clauses. In UD they are all mark, attached to the predicate of the subordinate clause (not the main one). So are infinitival to and a preposition introducing a clause (on whether users are at risk: on and whether are both mark). Conditions and exceptions. mark is a function word: not a noun, pronoun or adjective. Relative pronouns (who, which, that in relative clauses) are not mark but clause members (nsubj, obj, …). A subordinator may only have an adverbial modifier (just because, right after), fixed (so that, even though) or coordination. The head of mark is a clause (advcl, ccomp, csubj, acl, xcomp, root, conj, parataxis), not a nominal object or subject. Function words are leaves of the tree gives the complementary prohibited list. In UD. mark is not NOUN, PROPN, ADJ, PRON, DET, NUM, AUX, INTJ (unless it has ExtPos); children of mark are only advmod, obl, fixed, goeswith, reparandum, conj, cc, punct (and negation); SCONJ is usually mark (or fixed). Examples. Forces engaged in fighting after insurgents attacked — mark(attacked, after). — He says that you like to swim — mark(like, that). — because of the rain — here because is case (a preposition), not mark. Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/mark.md; UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (Complementizers, subordinating conjunctions and the infinitival marker); UD 2.18 validator, rel-upos-mark, leaf-mark-case; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lessons 63–65, 71–72, 100–107; Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. IX (Of Conjunctions), Rule XXII. Rules. en.verbal.mark-upos (error): mark is not a nominal/pronominal/adjectival/auxiliary word; en.verbal.mark-leaf (error): mark has only the allowed dependents; en.verbal.mark-head-clausal (warn): the head of mark is not a nominal or function-word relation; en.verbal.sconj-is-mark (warn): SCONJ is usually mark.

tense-two-forms

Only two morphological tenses

Gist. English verbs inflect for only two tenses: present (walks) and past (walked). Future (will walk), perfect (has walked), progressive (is walking) and pluperfect (had walked) are combinations with auxiliaries, not word forms, so there is no "future tense" or "aspect" feature on the verb. Conditions and exceptions. The past participle has Tense=Past and the progressive -ing participle Tense=Pres, although they do not express time as such (Poutsma considered the names "present/past participle" unfortunate). Modals have no tense at all (see Modal verbs: can, may, must, shall, will…). In UD. Tense is only Pres or Past; English verbs have no Aspect feature (it is absent from the UD 2.18 registry for VERB/AUX). No separate Aspect rule is needed: the FEATS reader already rejects unknown feature pairs. Examples. I had been there — had: Tense=Past, been: VerbForm=Part|Tense=Past, and no Tense=Pqp. — She will go — go has no Tense=Fut. Sources. UD docs/_en/feat/Tense.md; UD 2.18 feature registry; Jespersen, MEG IV (Time and Tense), ch. I–II; Poutsma 1923, Participles, §2; Brown 1851, Part II, Ch. VI (Tenses). Rules. en.verbal.tense-pres-past (error): Tense is Pres or Past.

to-before-ing

To before -ing — a preposition, not a particle

Gist. After some words to is a preposition and is followed by an -ing form (gerund), not an infinitive: I look forward to seeing you, She objected to being called, used to working, with a view to reducing. Infinitival to before -ing is possible only in the progressive infinitive with be (to be going). Conditions and exceptions. Test: can the -ing form be replaced by a noun? look forward to the trip — yes, so to is a preposition. I want to go — *I want to the trip — no, so it is the infinitival particle. In UD. to as PART with a VBG head must have an aux between them; otherwise to is ADP (with mark, since it introduces a clause). Examples. I look forward to seeing you (to is ADP). — She seems to be going (to is PART on going via be). Sources. UD docs/_en/pos/PART.md; UD docs/_en/dep/mark.md; UD docs/_en/feat/VerbForm.md (Ger); Poutsma 1923, The Gerund, §§43–45. Rules. en.verbal.to-part-before-ing (error): particle to on a VBG requires an auxiliary after to.

to-infinitive-marker

To with the infinitive — a function particle (mark)

Gist. To before an infinitive is neither a preposition nor an auxiliary but an infinitive marker. It attaches to the verb it introduces, which is non-finite: to go (VB), to be defanged (VBN with be), to have gone (VBN with have), to be going (VBG with be). Conditions and exceptions. An adverb (to boldly go) or negation (to not attempt) can stand between to and the verb. In ellipsis to becomes the head (update whatever you need to). Older grammars (Brown, Reed & Kellogg) called to a preposition governing the infinitive, and some analyses treat it as an auxiliary; UD adopts neither view. In UD. to: UPOS PART, XPOS TO, relation mark (never aux, case). The head is VB with VerbForm=Inf; if the head is VBN, an aux/aux:pass stands between to and it; the head is never finite. Examples. I tried to finish it. — It should continue to be defanged. — Change anything you need to. (to is the head). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/mark.md; UD docs/_en/dep/aux_.md; UD docs/_en/pos/PART.md; Brown 1851, Rule XVIII; Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §2 and §58. Rules. en.verbal.to-not-aux (error): particle to is never aux, aux:pass, case, cop, compound:prt; en.verbal.to-head-nonfinite (error): its head is not finite; en.verbal.to-vb-infinitive (error): a VB head is VerbForm=Inf; en.verbal.to-vbn-needs-aux (error): a VBN head needs be/have after to.

vb-infinitive-by-context

Base form VB: infinitive or finite

Gist. The base form (go, be, take; tag VB) differs grammatically by context. With to, a modal or another auxiliary (to go, can go, did not go), or as a complement of another verb (let him go, made me cry), it is an infinitive. When it forms a predicate on its own without an auxiliary, it is finite: imperative (Go!) or subjunctive (that he go). Conditions and exceptions. Exception: with imperative do, EWT marks the main verb Imp/Fin (see imperative). A bare infinitive in xcomp (let him go, help me move) is also Inf. In UD. VB with aux/aux:pass (other than imperative do) is VerbForm=Inf; VB as xcomp is always VerbForm=Inf. Examples. I have to leave (Inf). — He should leave (Inf). — Leave now! (Fin, Imp). — They let him leave (Inf, xcomp). Sources. UD docs/_en/feat/VerbForm.md; Brown 1851, Rules XVIII–XIX; Poutsma 1923, The Infinitive…, §1. Rules. en.verbal.vb-aux-infinitive (error): a VB verb with a non-imperative auxiliary is VerbForm=Inf; en.verbal.xcomp-vb-infinitive (error): a VB xcomp is VerbForm=Inf.

vp-ellipsis

VP ellipsis: the auxiliary becomes the head

Gist. English often omits a repeated verb with its dependents, leaving the auxiliary: Mary didn't leave, John did; I can't, but she can; So please update whatever you need to. The tree then has no main verb and the auxiliary (or to) takes its place: subject, negation and adverbials attach to it. Conditions and exceptions. If the verb is omitted and two clause members remain (Marie went to Paris and Miriam to Prague), it is gapping (see gapping-orphan). Coordinated auxiliaries on one verb (We can and will get there) are not ellipsis: will is conj of can. Brown required repeating differing forms in such places (as he has [made] mine). In UD. The auxiliary head keeps UPOS AUX (or PART for to) and receives the relation of the omitted verb (conj, ccomp, xcomp, root, …), not aux. Examples. John will win gold and Mary will too — conj(win, will), nsubj(will, Mary). — Change anything you need to — head to. Sources. UD docs/_en/specific-syntax.md (VP ellipsis); UD docs/_en/dep/orphan.md; Brown 1851, Rule XVII Note IX; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lesson 57. Rules. None (descriptive seed).

wh-adverb-clause

When, where, why, how in a subordinate clause — an adverb, not a conjunction

Gist. When, where, why, how introduce subordinate clauses (He was upset when I talked to him, I know where she lives), but unlike because or if they also play a role inside the clause — adverbial of time, place, reason, manner. So they are adverbs, not conjunctions. Conditions and exceptions. In free relatives (I looked where you were sitting) where is the head and the clause attaches to it as advcl:relcl. The same holds for whenever, wherever. In UD. when/where/why/how/whenever/wherever are ADV (XPOS WRB) with advmod (or the head of a free relative), never mark. Examples. He was upset when I talked to him — advmod(talked, when), advcl(upset, talked). — I looked where you were sitting — advmod(looked, where), advcl:relcl(where, sitting). Sources. UD docs/_en/dep/acl-relcl.md; UD docs/_en/dep/advcl-relcl.md; UD docs/_en/dep/advcl.md; Reed & Kellogg, Higher Lessons, Lessons 59–60, 63. Rules. en.verbal.wh-adverb-not-mark (error): these wh-adverbs are never mark.

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📘 English grammar seeds: verbs and clauses (en/seeds/verbal)