📰 Croatia · page 3

The hilly northern parts of Hrvatsko Zagorje and the flat plains of Slavonia in the east which is part of the Pannonian Basin are traversed by major rivers such as Danube, Drava, Kupa, and the Sava.182 The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city of Vukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border with Serbia.183 The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains and forested highlands.184 Natural resources found in quantities significant enough for production include oil, coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, gypsum, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt, and hydropower.[147]185 Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps.[149]186 Croatia hosts deep caves, 49 of which are deeper than 250 m, 14 deeper than 500 m and three deeper than 1000 m. The Plitvice lakes are a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades.187 The lakes are known for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue.[150]188

Climate

Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification.[151]189 Mean monthly temperature ranges between -3 °C in January and 18 °C in July.190 The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar featuring a snowy, forested climate at elevations above 1200 m.[151] The warmest areas are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by Mediterranean climate, as the sea moderates temperature highs.[151]191 Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in continental areas.[151]192

The lowest temperature of -35.5 °C was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec,[152] and the highest temperature of 42.8 °C was recorded on 4 August 1981 in Ploče.[153]193 Mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 mm and 3500 mm depending on geographic region and climate type.194 The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands (Biševo, Lastovo, Svetac, Vis) and the eastern parts of Slavonia.195 However, in the latter case, rain occurs mostly during the growing season.196 The maximum precipitation levels are observed in the Dinaric Alps, in the Gorski Kotar peaks of Risnjak and Snježnik.[152]197

Prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest, and in the coastal area, prevailing winds are determined by local features.198 Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as the cool northeasterly bura or less frequently as the warm southerly jugo.199 The sunniest parts are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the middle and southern Adriatic Sea area in general, and northern Adriatic coast, all with more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year.[154]200

Biodiversity

Main article: Protected areas of Croatia

Further information: Register of Protected Natural Values of Croatia, Natural and Cultural Heritage of Croatia

Croatia can be subdivided into ecoregions based on climate and geomorphology.201 The country is one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity.[155][156]202 Croatia has four types of biogeographical regions—the Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland, Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar, Pannonian along Drava and Danube, and Continental in the remaining areas.203 The most significant are karst habitats which include submerged karst, such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers, as well as underground habitats.204 The country contains three ecoregions: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Illyrian deciduous forests.[157]205

The karst geology harbours approximately 7,000 caves and pits, some of which are the habitat of the only known aquatic cave vertebrate—the olm.206 Forests are abundant, covering 2490000 ha or 44% of Croatian land area.207 Other habitat types include wetlands, grasslands, bogs, fens, scrub habitats, coastal and marine habitats.[158]208

In terms of phytogeography, Croatia is a part of the Boreal Kingdom and is a part of Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region.209 The World Wide Fund for Nature divides Croatia between three ecoregions—Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.[159]210

Croatia hosts 37,000 known plant and animal species, but their actual number is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.[158]211 More than a thousand species are endemic, especially in Velebit and Biokovo mountains, Adriatic islands and karst rivers.212 Legislation protects 1,131 species.[158]213 The most serious threat is habitat loss and degradation.214 A further problem is presented by invasive alien species, especially Caulerpa taxifolia algae.215

Invasive algae are regularly monitored and removed to protect benthic habitat.216 Indigenous cultivated plant strains and domesticated animal breeds are numerous.217 They include five breeds of horses, five of cattle, eight of sheep, two of pigs, and one poultry.218 Indigenous breeds include nine that are endangered or critically endangered.[158]219 Croatia has 411 protected areas, encompassing 9% of the country.220 Those include eight national parks, two strict reserves, and thirteen nature parks.221 The oldest national park in country is Plitvice Lakes National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.222 Velebit Nature Park is a part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme.223 The strict and special reserves, as well as the national and nature parks, are managed and protected by the central government, while other protected areas are managed by counties.224 In 2005, the National Ecological Network was set up, as the first step in the preparation of the EU accession and joining of the Natura 2000 network.[158]225

Governance

Further information: Politics of Croatia, Human rights in Croatia

The Republic of Croatia is a unitary constitutional republic using a parliamentary system.226 Government powers in Croatia are legislative, executive, and judiciary powers.[160]227 The president is the head of state, directly elected to a five-year term and is limited by the constitution to two terms.228 In addition to serving as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the parliament and has some influence on foreign policy.[160]229

The government is headed by the prime minister, who is supported by deputy prime ministers and various ministers in charge of particular sectors.[161]230 As the executive branch, it is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, enforcing the laws, and guiding foreign and internal policies.231 The government is seated at Banski dvori in Zagreb.[160]232

Law and judicial system

Further information: Law of Croatia

A unicameral parliament – known as the Sabor – holds legislative power.233 The number of parliament members can vary from 100 to 160.234 They are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.235 Legislative sessions take place from 15 January to 15 July, and from 15 September to 15 December annually.[162]236 The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP).[163]237

Croatia has a civil law legal system in which law arises primarily from written statutes, with judges serving as implementers and not creators of law.238 Its development was largely influenced by German and Austrian legal systems.239 Croatian law is divided into two principal areas—private and public law.240 Before EU accession negotiations were completed, Croatian legislation had been fully harmonised with the community acquis.[164]241

The main national courts are the Constitutional Court, which oversees violations of the Constitution, and the Supreme Court, which is the highest court of appeal.242 A variety of administrative, commercial, county, misdemeanor, and municipal courts handle cases in their respective domains.[165]243 Cases falling within judicial jurisdiction are in the first instance decided by a single professional judge, while appeals are deliberated in mixed tribunals of professional judges.244 Lay magistrates also participate in trials.[166]245 The State's Attorney Office is the judicial body constituted of public prosecutors empowered to instigate prosecution of perpetrators of offences.[167]246 Law enforcement agencies are organised under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior which consist primarily of the national police force.247 Croatia's security service is the Security and Intelligence Agency (SOA).[168][169]248

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Croatia

Croatia has established diplomatic relations with most world nations – 189 states in total – starting with Germany (1991) and most recently with Liberia (2024).[170]249 It exerts influence as a small power in this region and within European international institutions.[171][172]250 Since the 1990s, Croatia has had unresolved border disputes throughout Southeast Europe, namely with Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Slovenia.[173]251 It is a member of the United Nations (UN),[174] the European Union,[175] NATO,[176] the Council of Europe,[177] the Union for the Mediterranean,[178] and the Schengen Area as well as the Eurozone.[175][179]252 Modern Croatian foreign policy objectives include enhancing relations with neighbouring countries, developing international cooperation and promotion of the Croatian economy.[180]253

It supports 57 embassies, 30 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions.254 Many international organisations have regional offices in Croatia, such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), International Organization for Migration (IOM), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO), International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and UNICEF.[181]255

Croatian diaspora

Main article: Croatian diaspora

The diaspora consists of communities of ethnic Croats and Croatian citizens living outside Croatia.256 The largest diaspora is in the United States, with a large population across neighboring Southeast Europe.[182]257 The country maintains extensive contact with Croatian communities abroad through administrative and financial support of cultural, sports activities, and economic initiatives.[183]258 Croatia actively maintains foreign relations to strengthen and guarantee the rights of the Croatian minority abroad.[184][185]259

Military

Main article: Armed Forces of Croatia

Further information: Defence industry of Croatia

The Armed Forces of Croatia (OSRH) consists of three service branches: the Croatian Army, the Croatian Navy and the Croatian Air Force.260 They are headed by the President of Croatia as commander-in-chief while defence policy is overseen by the Government of Croatia.[186]261 The military supports the foreign policy of Croatia and international security initiatives.262 It is the sole military wing of the Military Security and Intelligence Agency (VSOA).263 The Armed Forces are spread across continental Croatia and capital city Zagreb, with the Navy largely based in Split.264 According to the 2025 Global Peace Index, Croatia is the 18th most peaceful country in the world.[187]265

Since the Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995), the Armed Forces have played a key role in protecting territorial integrity.266 The military's first foreign deployment was in 2003 – the War in Afghanistan and Iraq War – later joining the military alliance NATO in 2009.[188]267 Croatia maintains a close security and foreign intelligence relationship with NATO and the United States.[189]268 The military has been deployed to various United Nations (UN), NATO and American-led missions around the world.[190][191][192]269 Since joining the European Union (EU) in 2013, it became a part of the EU defence forces.270

The Armed Forces have seen significant militarization and modernization since the early 2020s due to regional geopolitical risk.[193]271 Its deep integration within Europe and the U.S. has led to modern defence pacts and a robust defence industrial base.[194]272 The Croatian military is among the most technologically advanced in Southeast Europe.[195][196]273 Croatia has had military conscription since 2025, previously enacted from 1991 to 2008.[197][147]274

Administrative divisions

Main article: Counties of Croatia

Further information: NUTS of Croatia

Croatia was first divided into counties in the Middle Ages.[198]275 The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory, changes of the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik, and Istria.276 The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively.[199]277

Communist-ruled Croatia, as a constituent part of post-World War II Yugoslavia, abolished earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities.278 Counties were reintroduced in 1992 legislation, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions.279 In 1918, the Transleithanian part was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Osijek, Požega, Varaždin, Vukovar, and Zagreb.[200][201]280

Since 1992, Croatia has been divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the dual authority and legal status of a county and a city.281 County borders changed in some instances, last revised in 2006.282 The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities.[202]283 Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) division is performed in several tiers.284 NUTS 1 level considers the entire country in a single unit; three NUTS 2 regions come below that.285 Those are Northwest Croatia, Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia, and Adriatic Croatia.286 The latter encompasses the counties along the Adriatic coast.287 Northwest Croatia includes Koprivnica-Križevci, Krapina-Zagorje, Međimurje, Varaždin, the city of Zagreb, and Zagreb counties and the Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia includes the remaining areas—Bjelovar-Bilogora, Brod-Posavina, Karlovac, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Sisak-Moslavina, Virovitica-Podravina, and Vukovar-Syrmia counties.288 Individual counties and the city of Zagreb also represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia.289 The NUTS local administrative unit (LAU) divisions are two-tiered.290 LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb in effect making those the same as NUTS 3 units, while LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to cities and municipalities.[203]291