📰 Somalia · page 5

• Somaliland corpus ---- Awdal Woqooyi Galbeed** Togdheer* Sanaag* Sool*; North East ---- Togdheer* Sanaag* Sool*; Puntland ---- Bari Nugaal Mudug***; Galmudug ---- Galguduud Mudug***347
• Hirshabelle ---- Hiran Middle Shabelle; South West ---- Bakool Bay Lower Shabelle; Jubaland ---- Gedo Middle Juba Lower Juba; Banaadir ---- Mogadishu corpus348

* Disputed349

** Separated to Maroodi Jeex and Sahil by Somaliland350

*** Shared by Puntland and Galmudug351

Northern Somalia is now de facto divided up among the autonomous regions of Puntland (which considers itself an autonomous state), Somaliland corpus (a self-declared, partially-recognised state) and newly established North East State of Somalia.352 In central Somalia, Galmudug is another regional entity that emerged just south of Puntland.353 Jubaland in the far south is a fourth autonomous region within the federation.[1]354 In 2014, a new South West State was likewise established.[222]355 In April 2015, a formation conference was also launched for a new Hirshabelle State.[223]356

The Federal Parliament was tasked in 2012 with selecting the ultimate number and boundaries of the autonomous regional states (officially Federal Member States) within the Federal Republic of Somalia.[17][224]357

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Somalia

Somalia's foreign relations are handled by the President as the head of state, the Prime Minister as the head of government, and the federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[17]358

According to Article 54 of the national constitution, the allocation of powers and resources between the Federal Government and the Federal Republic of Somalia's constituent Federal Member States shall be negotiated and agreed upon by the Federal Government and the Federal Member States, except in matters pertaining to foreign affairs, national defence, citizenship and immigration, and monetary policy.359 Article 53 also stipulates that the Federal Government shall consult the Federal Member States on major issues related to international agreements, including negotiations vis-a-vis foreign trade, finance and treaties.[17]360 The Federal Government maintains bilateral relations with a number of other central governments in the international community.361 Among these are Djibouti, Ethiopia, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Turkey, Italy, the United Kingdom, Denmark, France, the United States, the People's Republic of China, Japan, Russian Federation and South Korea.362

Additionally, Somalia has several diplomatic missions abroad.363 There are likewise various foreign embassies and consulates based in the capital Mogadishu and elsewhere in the country.364

Somalia is also a member of many international organisations, such as the United Nations,[225] African Union[226] and Arab League.[227]365 It was a founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 1969.[228][229]366 Other memberships include the African Development Bank, East African Community,[230] Group of 77, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Development Association, International Finance Corporation, Non-Aligned Movement,[231] World Federation of Trade Unions and World Meteorological Organization.367

Military

Main article: Somali Armed Forces

The Somali Armed Forces (SAF) are the military forces of the Federal Republic of Somalia.[232]368 Headed by the President as Commander in Chief, they are constitutionally mandated to ensure the nation's sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity.[17]369

The SAF was initially made up of the Army, Navy, Air Force, Police Force and the National Security Service.[233]370 In the post-independence period, it grew to become among the larger militaries on the continent.[147]371 The subsequent outbreak of the civil war in 1991 led to the disbandment of the Somali National Army.[234]372

In 2004, the gradual process of reconstituting the military was put in motion with the establishment of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG).373 The Somali Armed Forces are now overseen by the Ministry of Defence of the Federal Government of Somalia, formed in mid-2012.374 In January 2013, the Somali federal government also reopened the national intelligence service in Mogadishu, renaming the agency the National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA).[235]375 The Somaliland and Puntland regional governments maintain their own security and police forces.376

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Somalia

Human rights are guaranteed in the Federal Constitution.377 They fall under the Ministry of Human Rights established in August 2013.[236]378 The central authorities concurrently inaugurated a National Human Rights Day, endorsed an official Human Rights Roadmap,[237] and completed Somalia's first National Gender Policy.[238]379

However, both male and female same-sex sexual activity are punishable by death within Somalia.[239]380 On 3 October 2020, a UN human rights investigator raised concerns over Somali government's backtracking of human rights commitments.[240]381

Economy

Main article: Economy of Somalia

According to the CIA and the Central Bank of Somalia, with ongoing civil unrest, the Somali economy is primarily limited to livestock and remittance/money transfers from Somalis living in more economically advanced countries, and local telecommunications.[1][241]382 Owing to a dearth of formal government statistics and ongoing decades-long iterations of civil war, it is difficult to gauge the size or growth of the economy.383 For 1994, the CIA estimated the GDP at US$3.3 billion.[242]384 In 2001, it was estimated to be US$4.1 billion.[243]385 By 2009, the CIA estimated that the GDP had grown to US$5.731 billion, with a projected real growth rate of 2.6%.[1]386 According to a 2007 British Chambers of Commerce report, during a period of relatively less internal warfare, the private sector had also grown, particularly in the service sector.387 Unlike the pre-civil war period, when most services and the industrial sector were government-run, the 2007 report noted substantial, albeit unmeasured, private investment in commercial activities; this has been largely financed by the Somali diaspora, and included trade and marketing, money transfer services, transportation, communications, fishery equipment, airlines, telecommunications, education, health, construction and hotels.[244]388 In 2007, Libertarian economist Peter Leeson attributed this increased economic activity to the Somali customary law (referred to as Xeer), which he suggests provides a stable environment to conduct business in.[245]389

According to the Central Bank of Somalia, the country's GDP per capita as of 2012 was US$226, a slight reduction in real terms from 1990.390 About 43% of the population lives on less than 1 US dollar a day, with around 24% of those found in urban areas and 54% living in rural areas.[241]391 The Ministry of Finance of Somalia projected the 2025 GDP to be $13.3 billion.[246]392

Somalia's economy consists of both traditional and modern production, with a gradual shift toward modern industrial techniques.393 Somalia has the largest population of camels in the world.[247]394 According to the Central Bank of Somalia, about 80% of the population are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists, who keep goats, sheep, camels and cattle.395 The nomads also gather resins and gums to supplement their income.[241]396

Agriculture

See also: Agriculture in Somalia

Agriculture is the most important economic sector of Somalia.397 It accounts for about 65% of the GDP and employs 65% of the workforce.[244]398 Livestock contributes about 40% to GDP and more than 50% of export earnings.[1]399 Other principal exports include fish, charcoal and bananas; sugar, sorghum and corn are products for the domestic market.[1]400 According to the Central Bank of Somalia, imports of goods total about US$460 million per year, surpassing aggregate imports prior to the start of the civil war in 1991.401 Exports, which total about US$270 million annually, have also surpassed pre-war aggregate export levels.402 Somalia has a trade deficit of about US$190 million per year, but this is exceeded by remittances sent by Somalis in the diaspora, estimated to be about US$1 billion.[241]403

With the advantage of being located near the Arabian Peninsula, Somali traders have increasingly begun to challenge Australia corpus's traditional dominance over the Gulf Arab livestock and meat market, offering quality animals at very low prices.404 In response, Gulf Arab states have started to make strategic investments in the country, with Saudi Arabia corpus building livestock export infrastructure and the United Arab Emirates corpus purchasing large farmlands.[248]405 Somalia is also a major world supplier of frankincense and myrrh.[249]406 The modest industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, accounts for 10% of Somalia's GDP.[1]407 According to the Somali Chamber of Commerce and Industry, over six private airline firms also offer commercial flights to both domestic and international locations, including Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African Express Airways, East Africa 540, Central Air and Hajara.[250]408 In 2008, the Puntland government signed a multimillion-dollar deal with Dubai's Lootah Group, a regional industrial group operating in the Middle East and Africa.409 According to the agreement, the first phase of the investment is worth Dhs 170 m and will see a set of new companies established to operate, manage and build Bosaso's free trade zone and sea and airport facilities.410 The Bosaso Airport Company is slated to develop the airport complex to meet international standards, including a new 3400 m runway, main and auxiliary buildings, taxi and apron areas, and security perimeters.[251]411

Prior to the outbreak of the civil war in 1991, the roughly 53 state-owned small, medium and large manufacturing firms were foundering, with the ensuing conflict destroying many of the remaining industries.412 However, primarily as a result of substantial local investment by the Somali diaspora, many of these small-scale plants have reopened and newer ones have been created.413 The latter include fish-canning and meat-processing plants in the northern regions, as well as about 25 factories in the Mogadishu area, which manufacture pasta, mineral water, confections, plastic bags, fabric, hides and skins, detergent and soap, aluminium, foam mattresses and pillows, fishing boats, carry out packaging, and stone processing.[252]414 In 2004, a US$8.3 million Coca-Cola bottling plant also opened in the city, with investors hailing from various constituencies in Somalia.[253]415 Foreign investment also included multinationals including General Motors and Dole Fruit.[254]416

Monetary and payment system

Main article: Central Bank of Somalia, Somali shilling

The Central Bank of Somalia is the official monetary authority of Somalia.[241]417 In terms of financial management, it is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating and implementing monetary policy.[255]418

Owing to a lack of confidence in the local currency, the US dollar is widely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the Somali shilling.419 Dollarisation notwithstanding, the large issuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fuelled price hikes, especially for low value transactions.420 According to the Central Bank, this inflationary environment is expected to come to an end as soon as the bank assumes full control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currency introduced by the private sector.[255]421

Although Somalia has had no central monetary authority for more than 15 years between the outbreak of the civil war in 1991 and the subsequent reestablishment of the Central Bank of Somalia in 2009, the nation's payment system is fairly advanced primarily due to the widespread existence of private money transfer operators (MTO) that have acted as informal banking networks.[256]422

These remittance firms (hawalas) have become a large industry in Somalia, with an estimated US$1.6 billion annually remitted to the region by Somalis in the diaspora via money transfer companies.[1]423 Most are members of the Somali Money Transfer Association (SOMTA), an umbrella organisation that regulates the community's money transfer sector, or its predecessor, the Somali Financial Services Association (SFSA).[257][258]424 The largest of the Somali MTOs is Dahabshiil, a Somali-owned firm employing more than 2,000 people across 144 countries with branches in London corpus and Dubai.[258]425

With a significant improvement in local security, Somali expatriates began returning to the country for investment opportunities.426 Coupled with modest foreign investment, the inflow of funds have helped the Somali shilling increase considerably in value.427 By March 2014, the currency had appreciated by almost 60% against the US dollar over the previous 12 months.428 The Somali shilling was the strongest among the 175 global currencies traded by Bloomberg, rising close to 50 percentage points higher than the next most robust global currency over the same period.[259]429

The Somalia Stock Exchange (SSE) is the national bourse of Somalia.430 It was founded in 2012 to attract investment from both Somali-owned firms and global companies in order to accelerate the ongoing post-conflict reconstruction process in Somalia.[260]431 In June 2025, the National Securities Exchange of Somalia (NSES) was launched in Mogadishu, with future plans to trade stocks and sukuk bonds.[261][262]432

Energy and natural resources

Main article: Mineral industry of Somalia, Oil exploration in Puntland

The World Bank reports that, in 2007, electricity was largely supplied by local businesses.[244]433 Among these domestic firms is the Somali Energy Company, which performs generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.[263]434 In 2010, the nation produced 310 million kWh and consumed 288.3 million kWh of electricity, ranked 170th and 177th, respectively, according to the CIA.[1]435