🧚 Opening, part 2

The approximate date of these old canonical texts is now well established.1 Numerous references to the Buddhist Scriptures in the Bhābrā edict of Asoka, about 250 B.C., and in the canonical work _Kathāvatthu_, of about the same date, amply justify the statement that the texts from which these eleven stories are taken are, in their present form, at least three or four centuries anterior to the Christian era.2 It may interest the reader to know that these texts, originating in North India in the lifetime of Gotama, were handed down by oral tradition for many generations, were reduced to canonical form within a century or two of the death of Gotama, were carried to Ceylon in the third century B.C., were written down for the first time in the first century B.C., and were copied and recopied on palm-leaves by successive generations of scribes until comparatively recent times.3

The rest of the stories (except 25 and 26) are taken from the _Book of the Buddha’s Previous Existences_ or _Jātaka Book_.4 This remarkable work, which also originated in North India, relates in mixed prose and verse the experiences of the Future Buddha in each of 550 states of existence previous to his rebirth as Gotama.5 The received text of this work represents a recension made in Ceylon early in the fifth century A.D., but much of the material is demonstrably many centuries older.6 For example, the stanzas rank as canonical Scripture, older versions of some of the stories occur in the canonical texts, and many of the stories (including 4 and 7 and 22) are illustrated by Bharahat sculptures of the third century B.C.7 Stories 25 and 26 are also _Jātaka_ tales, adapted from C. H. Tawney’s translation of the _Kathāsaritsāgara_.8

For the most part, the _Jātaka_ stories purport to relate incidents in Gotama’s previous states of existence as a human being.9 For example, as Prince Noble-heart (1), he triumphs over his enemies and succeeds to the throne of his father through the kindly offices of a grateful elephant.10 As a Brahman’s son (2), he befriends in turn a pampered prince, a snake, a rat, and a parrot, with the result that he is basely betrayed by the prince, but treated with profound gratitude by the three animals.11

As King Brahmadatta (8), he overcomes anger with kindness, evil with good, the stingy with gifts, and the liar with truth.12 As Prince Five-weapons (9), he overcomes the giant ogre Sticky-hair with the Weapon of Knowledge.13 As a Brahman’s son (17 _b_), he frees his younger brother from the power of Jewel-neck, the dragon-king.14 As a Brahman’s son (18 _b_), he teaches friendliness for all living beings.15 As a caravan-leader (24 _b_), he protects his companions from a troop of man-eating ogres.16 As Jīmūta-vāhana, prince of the fairies (26), he offers the sacrifice of his body and blood for the welfare of all living beings.17

Several of the stories purport to relate incidents in Gotama’s previous states of existence as an animal.18 For example, as a generous elephant (3), he gives his tusks to an ungrateful forester who has betrayed him.19 As a merciful elephant (4), he spares the life of a tiny quail.20 As a wise quail (5), he avoids the snares of a fowler.21 As a brave lion (15), he averts the destruction of a host of frightened animals.22 As a wise partridge (19 _b_), he serves as the preceptor of a monkey and an elephant.23 As a wise quail (20 _b_), he outwits a hawk.24 As a wise boar (25), he offers the sacrifice of his body and blood.25

How did the Future Buddha come to be identified with the hero of each of these stories?26 The stories themselves give us the answer.27 For example, in the story of _Brahmadatta and the prince_ (6), we read that a high-minded prince generously forgave the murderer of his father and mother, returning good for evil and love for hatred.28 In this, the oldest form of the story, the Future Buddha is not even mentioned.29 But in a later form of the story, _Jātaka_ 371, we are expressly told that the generous prince was none other than the Future Buddha.30

Stories 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, and 24 illustrate the same process in a very striking way.31 Of each of these stories we have two versions, an earlier version from a canonical source, and a later version from an uncanonical source.32 It will be observed that in the older versions the Future Buddha is not mentioned at all.33 But in the later versions he is identified in turn with a wise ascetic (17 _b_, 18 _b_), a wise partridge (19 _b_), a wise quail (20 _b_), an honest dicer (23 _b_), and a wise caravan-leader (24 _b_).34

Originally a simple folk-tale, each of these stories has been converted into a birth-story by the simple literary device of identifying the highest and noblest character in the story with the Future Buddha.35 This, of course, was a comparatively easy matter, for the Future Buddha, in his previous states of existence, was believed to have exhibited the qualities of wisdom, courage, and generosity, and there are few of the stories in which at least one of the characters does not exhibit one or another of these qualities.36

The attempt to introduce the Future Buddha into the stories is not always carried out in a way to satisfy or convince the reader.37 Thus, as an honest dicer (23 _b_), he violates Buddhist teaching by administering deadly poison to his companion, a dishonest dicer.38 The latter must not, of course, be allowed to die.39 The honest dicer is therefore made to administer an emetic to his companion and to admonish him.40 As a wise quail (20 _b_), he again violates Buddhist teaching by saving his own life at the expense of his enemy’s life.41 Here the inconsistency is allowed to stand, and the story is used to illustrate the folly of walking in forbidden ground.42

In the case of some of the stories, the figure of the Future Buddha is, so to speak, lugged in by the heels.43 For example, little or nothing is gained by identifying the antelope caught in a trap (7) with the Future Buddha.44 As a Brahman’s pupil (10), and as a king’s counsellor (14), the Future Buddha offers only a word of advice.45 As a trader (21), and as a wise man (22), he is merely a spectator, and contents himself with remarking on the folly of misdirected effort.46 It is quite clear that in the case of these stories also we are dealing with simple folk-tales which have undergone only slight modification.47

Some of the stories have traveled all over the world.48 In the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, many of them found their way into the highways and byways of European literature.49 With Story 1, _The grateful elephant_, compare the story of Androclus and the lion, Aesop’s fable of the Lion and the Shepherd, and Gesta Romanorum 104.50 With Story 2, _Grateful animals and ungrateful man_, compare R. Schmidt, Panchatantra i. 9; C. H. Tawney, Kathāsaritsāgara ii.51 103; E. Chavannes, Cinq Cents Contes 25; A. Schiefner, Tibetan Tales 26; Gesta Romanorum 119; and the following stories in Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmärchen: 17 Die weisse Schlange, 60 Die zwei Brüder, 62 Die Bienenkönigin, 85 Die Goldkinder, 107 Die beiden Wanderer, 126 Ferenand getrü und Ferenand ungetrü, 191 Das Meerhäschen.52 For additional parallels, see J. Bolte und G. Polivka, Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- und Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm, Märchen 17, 62, 191.53

With Story 3, _Elephant and ungrateful forester_, compare E. Chavannes, Cinq Cents Contes 28.54 With Story 4, _Quail, crow, fly, frog, and elephants_, compare R. Schmidt, Panchatantra i. 18.55 Variants of Stories 5 and 7 form the frame-story of Panchatantra ii.56 With Story 5, _Quails and fowler_, compare C. H. Tawney, Kathāsaritsāgara ii.57 48; J. Hertel, Tantrākhyāyika iii.58 11; also Aesop’s fable of the Falconer and the Birds.59 With Story 7, _Antelope, woodpecker, tortoise, and hunter_, compare Mahābhārata xii.60 138; C. H. Tawney, Kathāsaritsāgara i. 296; also Aesop’s fable of the Lion and the Mouse.61 With Story 6, _Brahmadatta and the prince_, compare E. Chavannes, Cinq Cents Contes 10; also Jātaka 371.62 With Story 8, _Brahmadatta and Mallika_, compare Mahābhārata iii.63 194.64