Republic of the Congo

The Republic of the Congo,[14] also known as Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Republic or simply Congo,[15] is a country located on the western coast of Central Africa to the west of the Congo River.1 It is bordered to the west by Gabon, to the northwest by Cameroon corpus, to the northeast by the Central African Republic corpus, to the southeast by the Democratic Republic of the Congo corpus, to the south by the Angolan corpus exclave of Cabinda, and to the southwest by the Atlantic Ocean.2

The region was dominated by Bantu-speaking tribes at least 3,000 years ago, who built trade links leading into the Congo River basin.3 From the 13th century, the present-day territory was dominated by a confederation led by Vungu which included Kakongo and Ngoyo.4 The Tio Kingdom emerged in the 14th century, and Loango in the 16th century.5 In the late 19th century France colonised the region and incorporated it into French Equatorial Africa.[3]6 The Republic of the Congo was established on 28 November 1958 and gained independence from France in 1960.7 It was a Marxist–Leninist state from 1969 to 1992, under the name People's Republic of the Congo (PRC).8 After the introduction of multi-party elections in 1992, the democratically elected government was overthrown during the civil war, after which Denis Sassou Nguesso, who had previously served as president from 1979 to 1992, returned to office in 1997.9 He has remained president since then.10

The Republic of the Congo is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, La Francophonie, the Economic Community of Central African States, and the Non-Aligned Movement.11 It is the fourth-largest oil producer in the Gulf of Guinea, providing the country a degree of prosperity, with political and economic instability in some areas and unequal distribution of oil revenue nationwide.12 Its economy is dependent on the oil sector[16] and economic growth slowed after the post-2015 drop in oil prices.13

Christianity is the most widely professed faith in the country.14 According to the 2024 rendition of the World Happiness Report, the Republic of the Congo is ranked 89th among 140 nations.[17]15

Etymology

Further information: Congo River, Kongo people

It is named after the Congo River whose name is derived from Kongo, a Bantu kingdom that occupied its mouth around the time the Portuguese first arrived in 1483[18] or 1484.[19]16 The kingdom's name derived from its people, the Bakongo, an endonym said to mean "hunters" (mukongo, nkongo).[20][21]17

During the period when France colonised it, it was known as the French Congo or Middle Congo.18 The Republic of the Congo, or simply the Congo,[3] is a distinct country from the Democratic Republic of the Congo corpus, also known as the DR Congo.[22]19 Brazzaville's name derives from the colony's founder, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazzà, an Italian nobleman whose title referred to the town of Brazzacco, in the Italian comune of Moruzzo in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, whose name derived from the Latin Brattius or Braccius, both meaning literally "arm".[23]20

History

Main article: History of the Republic of the Congo

Bantu-speaking peoples, who founded tribes during the Bantu expansions, mostly displaced and absorbed the earlier inhabitants of the region, the Pygmy people, about 1500 BC.21 The Bakongo, a Bantu ethnic group that occupied parts of what later became Angola, Gabon, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, formed the basis for ethnic affinities and rivalries among those countries.22

By the 13th century, there were three main federations of states in the western Congo Basin.23 In the east were the Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, which likely included Nsundi, Mbata, Mpangu, and possibly Kundi and Okanga.24 South of these was Mpemba which stretched from modern-day Angola corpus to the Congo River.25 It included various kingdoms such as Mpemba Kasi and Vunda.26 To its west across the Congo River was a confederation of three small states; Vungu (its leader), Kakongo, and Ngoyo.[24]27 Some Bantu kingdoms—including those of the Kongo, the Tio, and Loango—built trade links leading into the Congo Basin.[25]28 The Tio Kingdom formed in the 14th century;[26] the association of kingship with smithing is believed to have originated among the Tio before spreading to the kingdoms of Loango and Kongo.[27]29

The Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the mouth of the Congo in 1484.[28]30 Commercial relationships grew between the inland Bantu kingdoms and European merchants who traded in commodities, manufactured goods, and people captured and enslaved in the hinterlands.31 After centuries as a central hub for transatlantic trade, direct European colonization of the Congo River delta began in the 19th century, subsequently eroding the power of the Bantu societies in the region.[29]32

The area north of the Congo River came under French sovereignty in 1880 as a result of Pierre de Brazza's treaty with Tio King Iloo I.[31][28] After the death of Iloo, his widow Queen Ngalifourou upheld the terms of the treaty and became an ally to the colonizers.[32]33 This Congo Colony became known first as French Congo, then as Middle Congo in 1903.34

In 1908, France organized French Equatorial Africa (AEF), comprising the Middle Congo, Gabon, Chad, and Oubangui-Chari (which later became the Central African Republic corpus).35 The French designated Brazzaville as the federal capital.36 Economic development during the first 50 years of colonial rule in Congo centered on natural resource extraction.37 Construction of the Congo–Ocean Railway following World War I has been estimated to have cost at least 14,000 lives.[28]38

During the Nazi occupation of France during World War II, Brazzaville functioned as the symbolic capital of Free France between 1940 and 1943.[33]39 The Brazzaville Conference of 1944 heralded a period of reform in French colonial policy.40 Congo "benefited" from the postwar expansion of colonial administrative and infrastructure spending as a result of its central geographic location within AEF and the federal capital at Brazzaville.[25]41 It had a local legislature after the adoption of the 1946 constitution that established the Fourth Republic.42

Following the revision of the French constitution that established the Fifth Republic in 1958, AEF dissolved into its constituent parts, each of which became an autonomous colony within the French Community.43 During these reforms, Middle Congo became known as the Republic of the Congo in 1958[25] and published its first constitution in 1959.[34]44 Antagonism between the Mbochis (who favored Jacques Opangault) and the Laris and Kongos (who favored Fulbert Youlou, the first black mayor elected in French Equatorial Africa) resulted in a series of riots in Brazzaville in February 1959, which the French Army subdued.[35]45

Elections took place in April 1959.46 By the time the Congo became independent in August 1960, Opangault, the former opponent of Youlou, agreed to serve under him.47 Youlou, an avid anti-communist, became the first President of the Republic of the Congo.[36]48 Since the political tension was so high in Pointe-Noire, Youlou moved the capital to Brazzaville.49

The Republic of the Congo became fully independent from France on 15 August 1960.50 Youlou ruled as the country's first president until labor elements and rival political parties instigated a three-day uprising that ousted him.[37]51 The Congolese military took over the country and installed a civilian provisional government headed by Alphonse Massamba-Débat.52

Under the 1963 constitution, Massamba-Débat was elected president for a five-year term.[25]53 During Massamba-Débat's term in office, the regime adopted "scientific socialism" as the country's constitutional ideology.[38]54 In 1964, Congo sent an official team with a single athlete at the Olympic Games for the first time in its history.55 In 1965, Congo established relations with the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China corpus, North Korea, and North Vietnam.[38]56 Under his presidency, the Congo began to industrialize.57 Some large production units with large workforces were built: the textile factory of Kinsoundi, the palm groves of Etoumbi, the match factory of Bétou, the shipyards of Yoro, etc. Health centers were created as well as school groups (colleges and elementary school).58 The country's school enrollment rate became the highest in Black Africa.[39]59

On the night of 14 to 15 February 1965, three public officials of the Republic of the Congo were kidnapped: Lazare Matsocota (prosecutor of the Republic), Joseph Pouabou (President of the Supreme Court), and Anselme Massouémé (director of the Congolese Information Agency).60 The bodies of two of these men were later found, mutilated, by the Congo River.[40][41]61 Massamba-Débat's regime invited some hundred Cuban army troops into the country to train his party's militia units.62 These troops helped his government survive a coup d'état in 1966 led by paratroopers loyal to future President Marien Ngouabi.63 Massamba-Débat's regime ended with a bloodless coup in September 1968.[38]64

Marien Ngouabi, who had participated in the coup, assumed the presidency on 31 December 1968.65 One year later, Ngouabi proclaimed the Congo Africa's first "people's republic", the People's Republic of the Congo, and announced the decision of the National Revolutionary Movement to change its name to the Congolese Labour Party (PCT).66 He survived an attempted coup in 1972 and was assassinated on 18 March 1977.[42]67 An 11-member Military Committee of the Party (CMP) was then named to head an interim government, with Joachim Yhombi-Opango serving as president.68 Two years later, Yhombi-Opango was forced from power, and Denis Sassou Nguesso became the new president.[25]69

Sassou Nguesso aligned the country with the Eastern Bloc and signed a 20-year friendship pact with the Soviet Union.70 Over the years, Sassou had to rely more on political repression and less on patronage to maintain his dictatorship.[43]71 The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 resulted in the ending of Soviet aid to prop up the regime, and it abdicated power.72

Pascal Lissouba who became Congo's first elected president (1992–1997) during the period of multi-party democracy attempted to implement economic reforms with IMF backing to liberalize the economy.73 In the years 1993 and 1994 the first Congo Civil War in Congo occurred.74 In June 1996, IMF approved a three-year SDR 69.5m (US$100m) enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) and was on the verge of announcing a renewed annual agreement when civil war broke out in Congo in 1997.[44]75

Congo's democratic progress was derailed in 1997 when Lissouba and Sassou started to fight for power in the civil war.76 As presidential elections scheduled for July 1997 approached, tensions between the Lissouba and Sassou camps mounted.77 On 5 June, President Lissouba's government forces surrounded Sassou's compound in Brazzaville, and Sassou ordered members of his private militia (known as "Cobras") to resist.78 Thus began a four-month conflict that destroyed or damaged some of Brazzaville and caused tens of thousands of civilian deaths.79 In October, the Angolan government began an invasion of Congo to install Sassou in power and the Lissouba government fell.80 After that, Sassou declared himself president.[25]81

In the elections in 2002, Sassou won with almost 90% of the vote cast.82 His two main rivals, Lissouba and Bernard Kolelas, were prevented from competing.83 A remaining rival, André Milongo advised his supporters to boycott the elections and then withdrew from the race.[45]84 A constitution, agreed upon by referendum in January 2002, granted the president new powers, extended his term to seven years and introduced a new bicameral assembly.85 International observers took issue with the organization of the presidential election and the constitutional referendum, both of which were reminiscent in their organization of Congo's era of the 1-party state.[46]86 Following the presidential elections, fighting restarted in the Pool region between government forces and rebels led by Pastor Ntumi; a peace treaty to end the conflict was signed in April 2003.[47]87