Estonia · page 5

Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by the indigenous ethnic group of Estonian Swedes.433 In recent years, the number of Swedish residents in Estonia has risen again, numbering almost 500 people by 2008, owing to property reforms enacted in the early 1990s.434 In 2004, the Ingrian Finnish minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy.435 The Estonian Swedes minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.[334]436 There is also a Roma community of approximately 1,000–1,500.[335]437

as of 2010 July 2, 84.1% of Estonian residents were citizens of Estonia, 8.6% were citizens of other countries and 7.3% were "citizens with undetermined citizenship".[336]438 Estonia has also accepted quota refugees under the migrant plan agreed upon by EU member states in 2015.[337]439 The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council report called "extremely credible" the description of the citizenship policy of Estonia as "discriminatory".[338]440 Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognised that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia.[339]441 The Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time.[340]442 Cultural autonomies could be granted to minorities numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia.443 The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993.444

Urbanization

Further information: List of cities and towns in Estonia, Populated places in Estonia

According to the Estonian government's regulations established in 2004, populated areas in Estonia are categorised as follows: küla (village), alevik (small borough or rarely small town), alev (town), and linn (city).445 A küla is typically a sparsely populated area or a densely populated settlement with fewer than 300 permanent residents.446 An alevik generally has at least 300 permanent residents, while both alev and linn are classified as densely populated areas with at least 1,000 residents.447 As of 2024, Estonia has 47 cities, 13 towns, 186 small boroughs, and 4,457 villages, with Tallinn being the capital and largest city, located on the northern coast along the Gulf of Finland.[341]448

In the 21st century, Estonia has continued to experience urbanisation.449 More than 70% of Estonia's population now reside in cities and towns.[342]450 The population density in Estonia averages around 30.6 people per square km, with significant regional variations.451 The lowest density is found on Hiiumaa at 10.2 people per square km, while Harju County, which includes Tallinn, has the highest density at 121.3 people per square km.[343]452

Religion

Main article: Religion in Estonia

Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.[344]453 Estonia is one of the least religious countries in the world, with majority of the population claiming to be irreligious.[345][346]454

Historically, the largest religious denomination in the country has been the Lutheranism, mainly represented today by the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church church, to which 160,000 people[347] (or 11.8% of the population) belong.455 However, since the 2011 census, Eastern Orthodoxy has surpassed Lutheranism in terms of church membership in Estonia.456 The Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church had a somewhat prominent position among the churches, but the agreement giving preferential status to it ended in 2023.[348]457 Before World War II, around 80% of the population of Estonian were Protestants, and the vast majority Lutheran,[349] followed by Eastern Orthodoxy,[350] also by Baptists and other Protestant branches.458 Religious affiliation in Estonia has decreased substantially over the past century.[351]459

Approximately 29% of Estonia's population identified with a religion according to data collected from the 2021 census.460 In contrast, 58% of Estonians reported having no religious affiliation.461 Among those who identify with a religion, 93% consider themselves Christians, a slight decrease from 97% in 2011.462 Other religions, including Islam, represent smaller but gradually growing segments; for instance, the Muslim population of Estonia grew from 0.1% to 0.5%.[352]463

A 2015 study by Pew Research found that the 45% of respondents who declared themselves to be religiously unaffiliated, were divided between 9% as atheists, 1% as agnostics, and 35% as believing in "nothing in particular".[353]464

Eastern Orthodoxy is now the largest religious group, primarily observed by a minority within the Russian-speaking minority, some Estonians as well as the Setos, a small ethnic Estonian group.465 The two largest Orthodox communities are the Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate, and the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.466 Since the 17th century, a small community of Russian Orthodox Old Believers has resided by the coast of Lake Peipus.467

Languages

Main article: Languages of Estonia

The official language is Estonian.468 Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language.469

The South Estonian dialects, which include Mulgi, Tartu, Võro and Seto, are spoken by nearly 100,000 people.470 Although they are distinct from "standard" (North) Estonian, they are typically regarded as dialects or regional forms of Estonian, rather than separate languages.[354]471 After English, Russian is now the second most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia.472 Most of the native Russian-speakers are first and second generation immigrants residing in the capital city Tallinn and several other industrial urban areas (most notably in Narva, where majority of the population are ethnic Russians).473 Due to its dominant role in the recent past (Russian language was a compulsory subject in all schools in Soviet-occupied Estonia), many Estonians, particularly those now aged 50 to 80, can still speak good Russian.474 By 2010, nearly two-thirds of the native Russian-speakers of Estonia had learnt to speak Estonian proficiently.[355]475

Historically, Swedish-speaking communities lived in Estonia from the 13th century until the 20th century, particularly along the coast and on the islands.476 After the establishment of Estonian independence, these communities were officially recognised, with Swedish used as an administrative language in majority-Swedish municipalities.477 However, during World War II, most Swedish speakers fled to Sweden ahead of the Soviet occupation in 1944, leaving only a small number of elderly Swedish speakers in Estonia.478 Swedish influence is still evident, particularly in regions like Noarootsi Parish of Lääne County, where bilingual Estonian-Swedish place names and signs remain.[356][357]479

The most common foreign languages learnt by Estonian students are English, Russian, German, and French.[358]480 English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia today.481 According to 2021 census data 76% of the population can speak a foreign language.482 In the 2021 census 17% of the native speakers of standard Estonian reported that they can also speak a dialect of Estonian.[359][330]483

Estonian Sign Language, officially adopted in 2007 under the Estonian Language Act, is the primary sign language of Estonia and is used by an estimated 4,500 people.484

Education

Main article: Education in Estonia

In education, Estonia ranks as one of the top-performing countries of the world.485 According to the 2018 PISA report, Estonian students placed 1st in Europe and globally ranked 5th in reading, 8th in mathematics, and 4th in sciences.[360][361]486 Estonia also boasts one of the highest adult education levels in the developed world, with 89% of adults aged 25–64 having completed at least a high school degree.[362]487 The University of Tartu, the nation's oldest university, has ranked 285th globally according to the QS World University Rankings.[363]488

The roots of formal education in Estonia can be traced back to the 13th and 14th centuries, with the establishment of the first monastic and cathedral schools.[364]489 The publication of the first Estonian-language primer in 1575 further contributed to the development of education.490 The University of Tartu, founded in 1632, played a central role in higher education, with courses offered in Estonian for the first time in 1919.491 Following the restoration of independence in the 1990s, Estonia offered free public education in Russian, but in 2024, the country began transitioning all public schools to Estonian-only instruction, underscoring a renewed focus on the national language and culture.[365]492

The Estonian education system is structured into four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education, with schools spanning general, vocational, and hobby-focused categories.[366]493 In addition to traditional state and municipal schools, the country supports a range of private and public educational institutions, totaling 514 schools as of 2023.[367]494 Estonia has been a pioneer in educational technology, launching the Tiigrihüpe programme to equip schools with computers and internet access, significantly advancing digital literacy and connectivity within the education sector.[368]495

Estonian higher education follows a three-tier structure of bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, with some integrated programmes combining bachelor's and master's levels.[369]496 Estonian public universities, such as the University of Tartu, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn University, and Estonian University of Life Sciences, enjoy considerable autonomy, including control over academic curricula, admissions criteria, budgets, and governance.[370]497 Estonia also has a mix of public and private universities, with the Estonian Business School standing as the country's largest private institution.498

Culture

Estonian culture emphasizes indigenous practices and can be said to have a strong connection to the land and community.499 Contemporary Estonian society is marked by a strong commitment to individual liberty, advocating for the principles of limited government, and resistance to central power and corruption.500 The Protestant work ethic remains a cultural mainstay, stressing diligence and self-reliance.501 Education is highly valued in Estonia, with free access to schooling being a highly prized institution.502 According to a study, Estonians are among the top in the world in terms of book ownership per capita.[371]503

The cultural framework of Estonia reflects the egalitarian ethos found in the Nordic countries, emerging from practical considerations such as everyman's right and universal suffrage, while also embodying ideals of closeness to nature.504

As of 2023, Estonia boasted 170 museums, whose collections collectively hold over 10 million artefacts.[372]505

One significant cultural tradition in Estonia is the sauna, along with its accompanying rituals.506 The smoke sauna tradition of Võru County, distinguished by its lack of a chimney and the use of smoke in the heating process, was included in the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage in 2014.[373]507

Estonia observes 11 public holidays public holidays with mandatory days off and celebrates 12 additional national holidays each year.[374]508 The Estonian National Day is the Independence Day, observed on 24 February to commemorate the 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence.509 Another pivotal holiday, Võidupüha, is celebrated on 23 June in remembrance of the Estonian victory in the 1918–1920 War of Independence.510 This holiday merges with the Jaanipäev (Midsummer Day) on 24 June, one of the oldest and most widely celebrated events.511 On Midsummer Eve, Estonians traditionally gather around bonfires near the village swing to enjoy dancing, singing, and other festivities.512 Christmas (jõulud) is also deeply cherished in Estonia, its traditions blending ancient winter solstice customs with Christian and modern holiday practices.[375]513

Music and dance

Music of Estonia has a rich history that traces back to early mentions in medieval chronicles, with the first known reference appearing in Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum around 1179.[376]514 The oldest form of folk songs in Estonia, known as regilaulud (runic songs), followed a distinct poetic metre shared with other Baltic Finns.[377]515

Estonian folk music also has a strong tradition of instrumental accompaniment, featuring the kannel, a zither-like instrument, along with the torupill, an Estonian bagpipe.516 The torupill was primarily used for dance music.[378]517 Other instruments, such as the fiddle, concertina, and accordion, also contribute to the folk music repertoire, particularly for traditional dances.518 Medieval Estonian music reflects the influence of church music, with surviving liturgical manuscripts showcasing early musical notation.519 By the 14th century, organs were common in Estonian churches, while secular musicians played instruments like the torupill and drums at community gatherings.[379]520

First held in 1869, the nationwide Estonian Song Festival is the country's most notable musical traditions.521 Held every five years at the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds, the festival regularly draws up to 100,000 participants.[380]522

Estonian composer Arvo Pärt has achieved global acclaim for his minimalist, deeply spiritual works.523 Pärt became the world's most performed living composer from 2010 to 2018.[381]524

Estonian rock and pop music emerged in the mid-1960s, with early bands performing in underground scenes to avoid scrutiny by Soviet occupation authorities.525 After regaining independence, Estonia won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2001 with "Everybody" (performed by Tanel Padar and Dave Benton).526

Estonian folk dance is characterised by repetitive motifs and simple movement patterns.527 Earliest written records of Estonian folk dance date to the 12th century.528 Elements from these ancient ritual dances are preserved in circle and chain dances, some of the oldest forms in Estonian dance.[382][383]529 The nationwide Estonian Dance Festival is held once every four years in Tallinn.[384]530

Mythology and folklore

The Estonian folklore and mythology are believed to be rooted in pre-Christian beliefs.[385]531 While much of Estonia's ancient mythology is scattered across fragments of oral tradition, some of the oldest myths are believed to have survived in traditional runic songs.532 One such song narrates the birth of the world, where a bird lays three eggs, from which emerge the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth.[386]533

The mythical heroes and giants, such as Kalevipoeg and Suur Tõll, are central to Estonian folklore.534 Kalevipoeg, a mythological giant hero, is often portrayed defending the land from invaders, and many natural landmarks are said to be traces of his deeds. "535 The Dawn and Dusk" (Koit ja Hämarik) is considered one of the most beautiful Estonian myths with authentic origin.[387]536 Jakob Hurt launched a nationwide folklore collection campaign in the 1880s, thanks to which 12,400 pages of folklore were collected by volunteers.537 Inspired by Hurt, Matthias Johann Eisen amassed a monumental 90,000 pages of folklore by the early 20th century.538 These collections are preserved by the Estonian Folklore Archives, one of the largest such institutions in the world.[388][389]539

Literature

Main article: Literature of Estonia, Estonian poetry

The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century.[390]540 Written Estonian poetry emerged during 17th–18th centuries, with authors such as Reiner Brockmann and Käsu Hans.541 Despite this, few notable works of literature were written until the 19th century and the beginning of an Estonian national awakening.542 Kristjan Jaak Peterson, the first renowned Estonian poet, emerged in the early 19th century, inspiring figures such as Friedrich Robert Faehlmann and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald to preserve Estonian folk poetry and produce the Kalevipoeg, the Estonian national epic.[391]543 It is written in the Kalevala tetrameter, a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity.[392]544 The national awakening also spurred the rise of national romantic poetry, with Lydia Koidula as its foremost figure.[393]545